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This  book  was  presented  by 

MILTON  M.  LEONARD,  D.V.M. 

TO  THE 

VETERINARY  MEDICAL  LIBRARY 


This  book  is  due  on  the  date  indicated 
below  and  is  subject  to  an  overdue 
fine  as  posted  at  the  circulation  desk. 


EXCEPTION:  Date  due  will  be 
earlier  if  this  item  is  RECALLED. 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 
ABRIDGED 


THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  THE  FEEDING, 
CARE,  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  FARM 
ANIMALS,    INCLUDING  POULTRY 

Adapted    axd    Condensed    from    FEEDS    AND    FEEDING 
(Sixteenth  Edition) 


BY 

W.  A.  HENRY,  D.Sc,  D.  Agr. 

EMERITUS   PROFESSOR  OP   AGRICULTURE, 
AND    FORMERLY    DEAN    OF    COLLEGE    OF    AGRICULTURE 
AND  DIRECTOR  OP   THE  AGRICULTURAL   EXPERIMENT   STATION, 
UNIVERSITY    OF    WISCONSIN 

AND 

F.   B.  MORRISON,  B.  S. 

ASSISTANT    DIRECTOR 

OF   THE   AGRICULTURAL   EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

AND  ASSOCIATE    PROFESSOR  OF  ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY, 

UNIVERSITY    OF    WISCONSIN 


MADISON,  WISCONSIN 

THE  HENRY-MORRISON  COMPANY 

1919 


Copyright,  1917 

BY 

THE  HENRY-MOKRISON  COMPANY 
All  rights  reserved 


J.   F.  TAPLEY  CO. 
NEW   YORK 


PREFACE 

''Feeds  and  Feeding,"  first  published  in  March,  1898,  was  received 
with  widespread  favor  by  practical  stockmen  and  by  the  teachers  and 
students  of  animal  husbandry  in  this  country.  Since  this  date  six- 
teen editions  have  come  from  the  press,  and  the  book  has  been  twice 
entirely  rewritten  to  include  new  and  important  data.  Many  stockmen 
rely  upon  "Feeds  and  Feeding"  as  the  guide  in  their  feeding  opera- 
tions, and  it  is  the  standard  text  on  stock  feeding  in  practically  all 
the  agricultural  colleges  in  this  country.  As  "Feeds  and  Feeding" 
covers  the  feeding  and  care  of  each  class  of  live  stock  in  a  compre- 
hensive manner,  it  is  of  necessity  a  large  book,  containing  much  de- 
tailed information. 

With  the  rapid  development  of  special  agricultural  courses  in  sec- 
ondary schools  and  of  short  courses  in  the  agricultural  colleges,  a 
demand  has  arisen  for  a  simplified  and  condensed  edition  of  the  work. 
In  response  to  this  demand  "Feeds  and  Feeding,  Abridged"  is  now 
brought  forth.  This  is  based  chiefly  upon  the  sixteenth  edition  of 
"Feeds  and  Feeding,"  but  the  subject  matter  has  been  so  condensed 
and  simplified  as  to  adapt  it  for  use  as  a  text  in  brief  courses  in  stock 
feeding.  Omitting  topics  of  purely  scientific  interest,  the  authors 
have  sought  to  present  in  the  simplest  terms  the  most  essential  facts 
concerning  animal  nutrition  and  the  practical  feeding,  care,  and 
management  of  farm  animals. 

In  most  brief  books  on  stock  feeding  the  care  and  management  of 
stock  receive  scant  attention,  but  in  "Feeds  and  Feeding,  Abridged" 
these  subjects,  which  are  of  the  utmost  practical  importance,  are  fully 
treated.  To  aid  the  teacher  and  the  student,  each  chapter  closes  with 
questions  covering  the  subject  matter,  and  116  engravings  illustrate 
some  of  the  most  important  points.  Since  the  subject  of  poultry 
feeding  is  commonly  included  in  live  stock  feeding  in  secondary 
schools,  chapters  have  been  added  on  the  feeding  and  care  of  poultry. 
Altho.  thus  covering  a  larger  field,  "Feeds  and  Feeding,  Abridged" 
contains  but  half  as  much  text  matter  as  "Feeds  and  Feeding." 

Part  I  presents  the  most  important  general  principles  governing 
the  rational  feeding  and  care  of  farm  animals.  The  various  feeding 
standards  are  briefly  discussed,  including  the  new  "Modified  Wolf- 


PREFACE 

Lehmann  Standards,"  prepared  by  the  authors  and  based  upon  the 
recent  findings  of  the  scientists  in  this  and  other  countries.  A  chap- 
ter on  "Economy  in  Feeding  Live  Stock"  points  out  some  of  the 
economic  principles  which  must  be  considered  in  the  feeding  and  care 
of  live  stock  to  realize  the  largest  profits. 

Part  II  discusses  all  the  important  feeding  stuffs  used  in  this 
country,  rather  than  merely  the  feeds  available  in  any  particular 
district.  This  permits  the  teacher  to  give  the  most  attention  to  the 
feeds  of  local  importance,  perhaps  omitting  others  entirely.  Finally, 
the  chapter  on  "Manurial  Value  of  Feeding  Stufit's"  points  out  the 
vital  relation  of  animal  husbandry  to  the  economical  maintenance  of 
soil  fertility. 

Part  III  takes  up  the  practical  feeding,  care,  and  management  of 
each  class  of  live  stock  and  summarizes  the  special  value  of  the  impor- 
tant feeds  for  each  class  of  animals.  Most  of  the  tables  giving  sum- 
maries of  the  important  feeding  trials  at  the  Experiment  Stations,  con- 
tained in  the  corresponding  part  of  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  are 
omitted  in  the  abridged  edition.  Instead,  the  authors  have  presented 
in  siiaple  terms  their  conclusions  on  the  value  of  the  difit'erent  feeding 
stuffs  and  of  the  various  methods  of  feeding  and  caring  for  stock. 

The  Appendix  Tables,  condensed  from  the  much  more  extensive 
Appendix  Tables  of  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  show  the  composition  and 
the  digestible  nutrients  and  the  fertilizing  constituents  in  the  most 
important  American  feeds.  As  these  tables  are  specially  protected  by 
copyright,  they  can  be  given  in  no  other  texts  on  stock  feeding. 

The  authors  wish  to  thank  the  following  for  assistance :  Mrs.  Elsie 
Bullard-Morrison,  who  has  rendered  invaluable  aid  on  every  page 
of  the  book;  Prof.  J.  A.  James  of  the  Department  of  Agricultural 
Education,  University  of  Wisconsin,  and  formerly  Superintendent  of 
the  Racine  County,  Wisconsin,  School  of  Agriculture,  who  has  made 
valuable  suggestions  in  adapting  the  book  to  the  needs  of  secondary 
schools ;  and  Prof.  J.  G.  Halpin  of  the  University  of  W^isconsin,  who 
greatly  aided  in  the  preparation  of  the  chapters  on  poultry.  For  ad- 
ditional suggestions  incorporated  in  these  chapters  the  authors  are 
indebted  to  the  following  works:  Lippincott,  "Poultry  Production;" 
Lewis,  "Productive  Poultry  Husbandry;"  and  Robinson,  "Principles 
and  Practice  of  Poultry  Culture,"  Credit  is  given  in  each  instance 
to  those  loaning  illustrations  for  use  in  the  book. 

W.  A.  Henry 
F.  B.  Morrison 
Madison,  Wis. 

February,  1917. 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Introduction.     Live  Stock  and  Profitable  Farming 1 

Part  I. — Plant  Growth  and  Animal  Nutrition 
Chapter 

I.    How  Plants  Grow  and  Build  Food  for  Animals 5 

II.     The   Animal   Body — Digestion — Metabolism 18 

III.  Measuring'  the  Usefulness  of  Feeds 34 

IV.  Maintaining-  Farm  Animals 50 

V.     Growth  and  Fattening 63 

VI.     Production  of  Work,  Milk,  and  Wool 77 

VIL     Feeding    Standards — Calculating   Rations 84 

VIII.     Economy  in  Feeding  Live  Stock. 106 

Part  II. — Feeding  Stuffs 

IX.    Leading  Cereals  and  their  By-products 117 

X.    Minor  Cereals,  Oil-bearing  and  Leg-uminous  Seeds,  and  their 

By-products 133 

XI.     Miscellaneous    Concentrates — Feeding    Stuffs    Control — Con- 

dimental  Foods 146 

XII.     Indian  Corn  and  the  Sorghums  for  Forage 157 

XIII.  The   Smaller   Grasses— Straw— Hay-making 167 

XIV.  Leguminous  Plants  for  Forage 180 

XV.    Eoots,  Tubers,  and  Miscellaneous  Forages 193 

XVL     Silage— Soilage    202 

XVII.     Manurial  Value  of  Feeding  Stuffs 212 

Part  III. — ^Feeding  Farm  Animals 

XVIIL     Feeding  and  Care  of  Horses 221 

XIX.    Feeds  for  Horses 236 

XX.     Feeding  and  Care  of  Dairy  Cows 247 

XXL     Feeds  for  the  Dairy  Cow 267 

XXII.     Eaising  Dairy  Cattle 280 

XXIIL     Feeding  and  Care  of  Beef  Cattle 290 

XXIV.     Feeds  for  Beef  Cattle 308 

XXV.     Feeding  and   Care  of   Sheep 322 

XXVI.     Feeds  for  Sheep 336 

XXVIL    Feeding  and  Care  of  Swine 347 


viii  CONTENTS 

Chapter  Pag) 

XXVIII,     Feeds  for  Swine 3(52 

XXIX.     Feeding-  and  Care  of  Poultiy 377 

XXX.    Feeds   for  Poultry 39(3 

Appendix 

Table         I.     Average  Composition  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs 403 

Table        II.     Average  Digestibility  of  Important  Feeding-  Stuffs 411 

Table      III.     Average  Digestible  Nutrients  and  Fertilizing-  Constituents 

in  American  Feeding  Stuffs 413 

Table      IV.     Wolff-Lehmann  Feeding  Standards  for  Farm  Animals.  ..  423 
Table        V.     Modified    Wolff-Lehmann   Feeding   Standards   for   Farm 

Animals 425 

Table      VI.     The  Feed-Unit  System— Amount  of  Different  Feeds  Re- 
quired to  Equal  One  Feed  Unit 428 

Table    VII.     Armsby's  Net  Energy  Values  for  Feeding-  Stuffs 429 

Table  VIII.     Armsby's  Feeding-  Standards  for  Farm  Animals 430 

Table      IX.     "Weight  of  Various  Concentrates 432 

Index , _  433 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,   ABRIDGED 


INTRODUCTION 

LIVE  STOCK  AND  PROFITABLE  FARMING 

Farm  animals  are  really  living  factories  that  are  continuously  con- 
verting their  feed  into  products  useful  to  man.  A  most  important 
fact  is  that  a  large  part  of  the  feed  thus  made  useful  is  of  such  char- 
acter that  it  cannot  be  directly  utilized  by  humans.  Among  the 
products  yielded  by  animals  are  such  articles  of  human  diet  as  meat, 
milk,  and  eggs,  materials  like  wool,  mohair,  and  hides,  which  meet 
other  needs  of  man,  and,  of  greater  aggregate  value  than  any  one  of 
these,  the  work  performed  by  draft  animals.  Each  year  the  farm 
animals  in  the  United  States  yield  over  five  billion  dollars'  worth  of 
useful  products — a  sum  almost  equal  to  the  value  of  all  the  crops 
harvested. 

As  the  population  of  our  country  increases,  most  naturally  a  smaller 
portion  of  the  crops  raised  can  be  fed  to  animals  and  more  will  be  con- 
sumed directly  by  humans.  This  change  must  come  with  the  in- 
creased demand  for  human  food,  since  even  high-producing  animals 
can  convert  but  a  small  part  of  their  food  into  forms  edible  for  man. 
However,  not  only  is  the  number  of  farm  animals  failing  to  keep  pace 
with  the  increase  in  population,  but  the  number  of  cattle  and  sheep 
in  this  country  has  actually  decreased  in  recent  years,  and  the  number 
of  swine  has  increased  but  little.  This  means  that  animal  products 
can  not  long  hold  their  present  important  place  in  our  diet  unless 
American  farmers  come  to  appreciate  the  advantages  of  stock  farm- 
ing and  better  understand  the  principles  and  methods  which  are 
essential  to  its  success. 

Live-stock  farming  and  soil  fertility. — With  the  high  prices  ruling, 
many  farmers  are  selling  their  crops  for  cash,  rather  than  marketing 
at  least  a  portion  thru  feeding  them  to  live  stock,  and  thereby  practic- 
ing balanced  agriculture.  Too  often  they  forget  that  each  ton  of 
grain  sold  removes  from  $7  to  $8  in  fertility  from  the  soil,  and  that 
this  gradual  mining  of  their  farms  will  surely  result  in  worn-out  fields 
that  must  forever  afterwards  be  fed  with  commercial  fertilizers  in 
prder  to  produce  fair  crops.    On  the  other  hand,  thru  feeding  a  part 


2         FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

of  the  crops  to  animals  and  caring  properly  for  the  resulting  manure, 
most  of  the  fertility  may  be  retained  on  the  farm,  and  the  need  of 
commercial  fertilizers  long  delayed.  Where  intensive  stock  farming 
is  followed  and  milling  by-products  rich  in  fertilizing  constituents 
are  purchased  and  fed  on  the  farm,  the  land  may  grow  richer  each 
year,  A^dth  little  need  for  commercial  fertilizers. 

Consumption  of  feed  otherwise  wasted. — In  exclusive  grain  farm- 
ing, there  is  no  successful  way  of  utilizing  such  materials  as  straw  and 
corn  stover,  and,  being  regarded  as  waste,  they  are  often  burned 


Fig.  1. — Live  Stock  Utilize  Feed  Otherwise  Wasted 

In  grain  farming,  tlie  corn  stalks  are  allowed  to  waste  away  in  the  fields  after 
the  ears  are  harvested,  but  in  live-stock  farming  the  corn  stover  is  profitably  fed 
to  the  stock. 


or  otherwise  disposed  of  without  regard  to  the  fertility  lost  to  the  soil. 
In  stock  husbandry,  all  these  by-products  may  be  economically  used 
for  feed  or  bedding.  By  this  means  much  forage  whicli  cannot  be 
eaten  by  humans  and  would  otherwise  be  wasted,  is  refined  thru  the 
agency  of  animals  into  forms  suitable  for  man,  while  most  of  the 
fertility  goes  back  in  the  manure  to  nourish  the  fields.  Immense 
quantities  of  by-products  result  from  the  manufacture  of  flour,  break- 
fast foods,  vegetable  oils,  etc.  Tho  these  are  all  unsuited  for  human 
food,  they  are  valuable  feeds  for  stock.     As  our  population  increases, 


INTRODUCTION  3 

such  by-products  must  to  an  ever  increasing  degree  be  used  to  sustain 
farm  animals. 

Utilization  of  land  unsuited  for  tillage. — In  those  sections  of  our 
country  which  are  so  rough  or  stony  that  the  land  cannot  be  culti- 
vated, cattle  and  sheep  may  be  profitably  kept.  Also,  in  the  great 
semi-arid  regions  of  the  West  where  neither  dry  farming  nor  irriga- 
tion are  practicable,  stock  thrive  on  the  scanty  but  extremely  nutri- 
tious grasses  and  other  vegetation.  Cut-over  timber  districts  may 
likewise  be  profitably  grazed  before  they  are  finally  brought  under 
tillage. 

Distribution  of  labor. — In  grain  farming,  the  demand  for  labor  is 
irregular  and  during  rush  seasons,  such  as  harvesting,  help  is  scarce 
and  high  priced.  On  the  other  hand,  live-stock  farming  gives  em- 
ployment thruout  the  year.  ^Moreover,  in  winter,  when  animals  re- 
quire the  most  care  and  attention,  the  farmer  is  the  least  busy  with 
other  farm  Avork.  By  offering  steady  employment,  the  stock  farmer 
is  usually  able  to  secure  more  efficient  and  trustworthy  men  than  the 
grain  farmer. 

Intelligent  and  progressive  agriculture. — The  whole  world  over, 
the  most  enlightened  and  progressive  agricultural  districts  are  found 
where  live-stock  farming  is  practiced.  This  is  due  to  several  reasons : 
The  live-stock  farmer  can  not  live  from  hand  to  mouth,  but  must  lay 
in  a  store  of  feed  for  his  animals  thruout  the  winter  months.  This 
same  care  and  foresight  are  then  carried  into  his  other  activities. 
Under  some  systems  of  agriculture  the  returns  from  the  year's  crops 
all  come  in  at  once,  which  makes  for  extravagance  and  idleness,  with 
resultant  poverty  until  another  crop  is  harvested.  On  the  other  hand, 
under  most  systems  of  live-stock  farming,  income  is  secured  several 
times  during  the  year. 

The  care  and  control  of  domestic  animals,  which  are  intelligent  yet 
submissive  to  his  wall,  tend  to  develop  those  instincts  in  man  that  make 
him  kindly,  self-reliant,  and  trustworthy.  The  good  stockman  grows 
proud  of  his  sleek,  well-bred  animals  and  derives  a  satisfaction  there- 
from not  measured  in  money.  With  pride  he  may  hand  down  to  his 
sons  his  reputation  as  a  breeder.  He  is  also  able  to  leave  them  fertile 
fields  which  he  has  built  up  rather  than  robbed,  a  heritage  bequeathed 
by  few  grain  farmers. 

Profitable  live-stock  farming. — In  the  early  days,  with  land  low  in 
price,  pasturage  abundant,  and  feed  and  labor  cheap,  profit  from  live- 
stock farming  was  comparatively  easy,  even  tho  one  knew  little  of 
the  principles  governing  the  feeding  and  care  of  stock.  Conditions 
have  now  changed.  The  great  western  prairies  no  longer  offer  rich 
fields  free  for  the  taking,  and  hence  thruout  the  country  fertile  land 


4         FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

has  advanced  in  price.  No  less  marked  has  been  the  increase  in  the 
cost  of  labor  and  of  feeding  stuffs.  But  the  price  of  live-stock  prod- 
ucts has  also  advanced,  so  that  satisfactory  profits  may  still  be  real- 
ized. However,  present  conditions  call  for  a  more  intelligent  type  of 
stock  farming  than  has  ruled  in  the  past.  Good  profits  are  possible 
only  when  the  operations  are  planned  with  good  judgment,  and  there 
is  a  thoro  appreciation  of  the  requirements  of  the  various  classes  of 
animals  for  food  and  care. 

In  the  pioneer  days  of  our  country  the  feeds  commonly  used  for  live 
stock  were  restricted  to  the  grains  and  forages  grown  on  the  farm. 
Knowledge  of  the  value  of  these  farm-grown  products  is  not  now  suf- 
ficient for  intelligent  feeding.  The  problem  is  complicated  by  the 
host  of  by-products  resulting  from  the  manufacture  of  articles  of 
human  food.  Many  of  these  are  valuable  and  economical  supple- 
ments to  the  feeds  raised  on  the  farm.  However,  such  products  vary 
considerably  in  price  and  even  more  markedly  in  nutritive  value. 
Most  economical  feeding  is  therefore  possible  only  when  the  relative 
value  of  these  products  compared  with  each  other  and  with  the  farm- 
grown  crops  is  clearly  understood. 

In  learning  of  feeds  and  of  feeding  we  must  first  consider  the  plant 
substances  which  provide  the  nourishment  for  farm  animals  and  study 
how  they  are  built  up  in  the  living  plant.  Next  we  should  learn  how 
the  food  consumed  by  animals  is  digested  and  utilized  within  the  body 
for  the  production  of  meat,  milk,  work,  or  wool,  and  should  also  study 
the  requirements  of  each  class  of  animals  for  food,  water,  shelter,  and 
exercise.  Only  then  are  we  in  a  position  to  understand  the  value  and 
merits  for  each  of  the  farm  animals  of  the  many  different  feeds,  and 
finally  to  consider  the  principles  of  care  and  management,  the  con- 
stant observance  of  which  is  essential  to  the  highest  success  in  animal 
husbandry. 


Part  I 

PLANT  GROWTH  AND  ANIMAL 
NUTRITION 


CHAPTER  I 
HOW  PLANTS  GROW  AND  BUILD  FOOD  FOR  ANIMALS 

I.    Plant  Growth 

All  food  for  animals,  with  the  exception  of  air,  water,  and  salt,  is 
supplied  either  directly  or  indirectly  by  plants.  To  understand  the 
feeding  of  live  stock,  one  should  therefore  know  how  plants  grow  and 
build  this  food  and  of  what  it  consists. 

The  food  of  plants. — Both  plants  and  animals  are  composed  of  a 
great  many  substances  or  compounds — yet  all  are  made  up  of  a  rela- 
tively small  number  of  chemical  elements.  Indeed,  of  the  80  or  more 
elements  known  to  the  chemist,  only  14  are  commonly  present  in 
plants.  Of  these,  at  least  10  are  absolutely  necessary  for  plant  growth. 
These  are :  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  sulfur,  phosphorus,  po- 
tassium, calcium,  magnesium  and  iron.  Sodium,  silicon,  chlorine, 
and  manganese  are  also  usually  found  in  plants  and  may  be  essential 
to  growth.  lodin  also  is  present  in  some  plants.  Except  in  the  two 
instances  which  will  be  noted  later,  plants  cannot  use  for  food  the  un- 
combined  elements,  such  as  metallic  iron  or  carbon  in  the  form  of 
charcoal,  but  they  are  nourished  by  water,  carbon  dioxid  (carbonic 
acid  gas),  and  mineral  salts — all  of  which  are  compounds  containing 
the  elements  in  chemical  combination. 

Water  (composed  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen)  serves  a  double  pur- 
pose in  plants.  Some  of  the  water  taken  up  by  the  plant  roots  is  used 
as  food,  while  the  rest  serves  as  the  carrier  of  plant  food.  Only  when 
it  is  dissolved  in  water  can  plant  food  be  taken  from  the  soil  by  the 
roots  or  be  carried  from  one  part  of  the  plant  to  another.  A  surpris- 
ing amount  of  water  is  needed  by  plants  during  growth.  For  every 
pound  of  dry  matter  which  they  manufacture,  from  200  to  500  lbs.  of 
water  is  drawn  from  the  soil  in  humid  climates,  and  as  high  as  1,800 
lbs.  in  arid  districts. 

Next  to  water,  carbon  dioxid,  or  carbonic  acid  gas  (composed  of  car- 
bon and  oxygen),  is  the  great  food  material  of  plants.     This  is  ob- 

5 


6 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


tained  from  the  air,  ten  thousand  parts  of  which  contain  3  to  4  parts 
by  volume  of  carbon  dioxid.  The  air  supplies  carbon  dioxid  to  the 
cells  of  the  plant  thru  the  innumerable  minute  openings  on  the 
under  surface  of  the  leaves.  In  producing  a  15-ton  crop  of  green 
corn  over  5  tons  of  carbon  dioxid  are  required,  to  obtain  which  the 
plants  must  take  in  over  12,000  tons  of  air.  Yet  the  suppl}^  of  carbon 
dioxid  is  never  exhausted,  for  it  is  being  continuously  returned  to  the 
air  thru  the  breathing  out  of  carbon  dioxid  by  animals  and  the  decay 
of  plant  and  animal  matter. 

Nitrogen  abounds  in  the  living,  growing  parts  of  plants.  Altho 
about  three-fourths  of  the  air  is  nitrogen  gas,  plants  in  general  cannot 
use  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air,  but  obtain  their  supply  from  nitrogen- 
containing  compounds  in  the  soil,  chiefly  the  nitrates.     Bacteria  living 


Carbon  cf/'oxid 


^^^%-^ 


^    _      ^(ffyo/roi^enondoKyqen) 

m/hera/ mo/^er     ^^^^^'^rates 
Sa/phur       Ca/c/'um 
P/}03p^orus  magnesium 
Potosd/um  Iron 

Fig.  2. — ^Where  Plants  Secure  Their  Food 

Plants  obtain  carbon  dioxid  from  the  air,  and  water,  mineral  matter,  and 
nitrates  from  the  soil.  Legumes  are  able  to  use  indirectly  the  nitrogen  of  the 
air.     Plants  give  off  water  and  free  oxygen  gas  to  the  air  thru  their  leaves. 

in  nodules  on  the  roots  of  legumes,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa,  and  peas, 
are  able  to  take  nitrogen  gas  from  the  air  and  pass  it  on  in  combined 
form  to  the  host  plants.  Thus,  the  legumes  are  able  indirectly,  thru 
the  aid  of  these  bacteria,  to  use  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  as  food. 

Oxygen,  which  is  a  part  of  all  plant  compounds,  is  obtained  largely 
from  water  and  carbon  dioxid,  and  not  from  the  free  oxygen  gas  of 


HOW  PLANTS  GROW 


the  air.  Some  oxygen  gas  is,  however,  being  continuously  absorbed  by 
all  green  plants  and  is  necessaiy  for  their  growth. 

The  mineral  substances,  such  as  phosphates,  potash,  and  lime,  which 
are  needed  by  the  plants,  are  taken  from  the  soil  thru  the  roots. 

Plant  building. — The  carbon  dioxid,  the  water,  and  the  nitrates  and 
other  mineral  compounds  are  carried  in  the  sap  currents  to  the  living, 
green-colored  protoplasm  of  the  leaf  cells.  Here  these  relatively 
simple  compounds  are  built  into  the  much  more  complex  plant  sub- 


FiG.  3. — Plant  Cells,  Magnified  350  Times 

A,  Cell  wall;  b,  nucleus,  or  life  center  of  cell;  c,  strands  of  protoplasm;  d, 
spaces  filled  with  cell  sap;  e,  chlorophyll  bodies.      (After  Strassburger. ) 

Fig.  4. — Section  op  Leaf,  Magnified  400  Times 

A,  stoma,  or  openings  on  under  side  of  leaf  thru  which  air  enters;  b,  chloro- 
phyll bodies  in  leaf  cells;  d,  lower  epidermal  cells  of  leaf;  e,  upper  epidermal 
cells  of  leaf.      (After  Strassburger.) 

stances.  In  some  mysterious  manner  chlorophyll,  the  green  coloring 
matter  of  the  leaves,  breaks  down  carbon  dioxid  and  water  under  the 
influence  of  light,  and  rearranges  the  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  some  of 
the  oxygen  into  relatively  simple  plant  compounds.  The  rest  of  the 
oxygen  is  given  back  to  the  air  as  free  oxygen  gas.  It  is  not  definitely 
known  whether  the  first  product  so  formed  is  starch,  sugar,  or  some 
simpler  compound.  From  the  compounds  first  made  the  plant  then 
builds  more  complex  substances,  some  of  which  contain  mineral  matter 
obtained  from  the  soil.     Both  sugar  and  starch  contain  much  energy, 


8  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

while  carbon  dioxid  and  water  contain  but  little.  Therefore,  to  make 
sugar  and  starch  from  these  two  energy-poor  substances  the  plant 
must  secure  energy  from  some  outside  source.  This  it  obtains  from 
the  sun,  as  light,  which  is  absorbed  by  the  leaves. 

The  carbohydrates. — Sugar  and  starch,  together  with  the  related 
products,  the  celluloses  and  pentosans,  are  called  carbohydrates.  This 
group  of  plant  compounds  makes  up  the  major  portion  of  all  plant 
substance.  The  term  carhohydrates  means  that  these  compounds  are 
formed  of  the  three  elements,  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  the  latter 
two  being  present  in  the  proportion  existing  in  water,  the  chemical 
formula  for  which  is  H^O.  (This  means  that  every  molecule  of  water 
contains  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  and  one  atom  of  oxygen.) 

The  molecular  composition  of  the  leading  plant  carbohydrates  is  as 
follows : 

Glucose         1     p  TT  n 
Fruit  sugar  J     '"«^i^'-'« 

Cane  sugar   1     p   tt   n 
Malt  sugar    J      ^i^^^^v^" 

CeUulose        }     (CeH.oOJx 

Pentose  C^H^oOs 

Pentosan  (CsHgOJx 

The  molecules  in  the  bracketed  groups  are  in  reality  far  more  com- 
plex than  the  formulae  indicate,  the  actual  molecule  being  many  mul- 
tiples of  the  groups  here  given. 

All  sugars,  not  only  the  simpler  glucose  and  fruit  sugar  but  also 
the  more  complex  cane  sugar  and  malt  sugar,  are  soluble  in  the  juices 
of  the  plant.  They  are  thus  the  portable,  carbohydrate  building  ma- 
terial of  plants,  which  is  carried  in  the  sap  to  all  their  parts  as 
needed.  Some  plants,  as  the  beet  and  the  sugar  cane,  store  their  re- 
serve food  chiefly  in  the  form  of  sugar. 

Starch  is  more  complex  in  structure  than  the  sugars  and  is  in- 
soluble in  water.  It  is  the  form  in  which  most  plants  chiefly  store 
their  reserve  food.  This  carbohydrate  abounds  in  nearly  all  seeds, 
forming  over  70  per  ct.  of  the  dry  matter  in  corn  and  wheat  grains. 
Often  starch  is  stored  in  the  underground  parts  of  plants,  as  in  the 
potato  tuber,  or  in  fruits,  as  in  the  apple.  Since  starch  is  insoluble 
in  the  sap,  it  must  be  changed  into  sugars  by  an  enzyme  or  ferment 
when  it  is  needed  in  other  parts  of  the  plant.     (See  Page  22.) 

Cellulose  is  the  ^reat  structural  substance  of  plants-,  for  the  walls 


HOW  PLANTS  GROW 


of  all  plant  cells  consist  chiefly  of  this  carbohydrate.  Thus  it  forms 
almost  the  whole  of  the  skeleton  or  framework  of  plants.  It  is  built 
by  the  plant  cells  from  the  simpler  carbohydrates — the  starches  and 
sugars.  The  thickness  of  the  cell  walls,  and  consequently  the  per. 
centage  of  cellulose,  varies  greatly  in  different  parts  of  plants,  the 
walls  being  thick  and  resistant  in  the  woody  stems,  and  thin  and 
delicate  in  the  softer  parts,  such  as  the  fruits  and  leaves.  Especially 
in  the  woody  parts  of  plants,  the  cell  walls  do  not  consist  simply  of 
pure  cellulose,  but  of  cellulose 
combined  with  other  related 
carbohydrates,  which  are  even 
tougher  and  more  resistant. 
In  analyzing  plants  the  chem- 
ist includes  cellulose  and  these 
other  compounds  under  the 
term  fiber. 

The  pentoses  and  pentosans 
are  carbohydrates  with  5  atoms 
of  carbon  in  the  molecule,  in 
place  of  6  as  in  the  sugars  and 
starches.  The  pentoses  corre- 
spond to  sugars,  and  the  pen- 
tosans to  starch  and  cellulose. 
The  pentosans  are  widely  dis- 
tributed in  plants,  being  found 
in  largest  amount  in  the  more 
woody  portions  and  in  the 
outer  portions  of  seeds.    While 

corn  grain  contains  less  than  6  per  ct.  of  pentosans,  straw  and  hay 
from  the  grasses  usually  contain  over  20  per  ct. 

Fats  and  oils. — Fats,  which  are  solid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and 
oils,  which  are  liquid,  are  composed  of  the  same  elements  as  are  the 
carbohydrates ;  i.  e.,  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  In  fats  and  oils, 
however,  the  proportion  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  is  greater.  They 
therefore  give  off  more  heat  on  burning,  one  pound  of  fat  producing 
about  two  and  a  quarter  times  as  much  heat  as  a  pound  of  carbo- 
hydrates. Oils  and  fats  most  abound  in  the  seeds  of  plants,  the 
reserve  food  supply  in  peanuts  and  flax  seed,  for  example,  being 
largely  in  this  form. 

Nitrogenous  compounds. — In  the  living  plant  cells  sugar  and 
starch,  formed  from  carbon  dioxid  and  water  thru  the  action  of  the 
sunlight,  are  united  with  nitrates  and  other  salts  gathered  by  the 
roots  from  the  soil  to  form  a  new  group  of  complex  compounds  called 


Starch  Grains 


A,  From  corn  gi-ain;  b,  from  wheat;  c, 
from  oats;  d,  from  potato.  (Magnified 
330  times.) 


10  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

crude  proteins.  In  addition  to  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  these 
compounds  contain  nitrogen,  sulfur,  and  sometimes  phosphorus. 
The  nitrogenous  compounds  are  the  most  complex  of  all  plant  com- 
pounds and  are  therefore  the  most  difficult  to  study  and  classify. 
For  example,  the  probable  molecular  composition  of  legumin,  a  pro- 
tein found  in  the  seed  of  the  field  pea,  is  C71SH115SO038N014S..  Due  to 
this  complexity,  and  also  because  of  the  great  number  of  different 
nitrogenous  compounds  found  in  plants,  even  after  years  of  effort  by 
able  chemists  our  knowledge  of  the  differences  in  composition  and 
feeding  value  of  these  compounds  is  still  limited.  In  discussions  of 
feeding  stuffs  and  stock  feeding,  the  terras  crude  protein,  protein,  and 
amids  are  commonly  used  for  designating  the  various  classes  of 
nitrogenous  compounds. 

Crude  protein  includes  all  the  nitrogenous  compounds  of  the  plant. 
The  chemist  finds  that  about  16  per  ct.  of  the  plant  proteins  is 
nitrogen.  Accordingly,  he  multiplies  the  nitrogen  found  in  a  given 
plant  substance  by  6.25  (100  -f-  16  =  6.25)  and  calls  the  product  crude 
protein.  Crude  protein  embraces  two  great  groups  of  nitrogenous 
plant  compounds,  proteins  and  amids. 

The  amids  may  be  termed  the  building  stones  of  the  proteins,  for 
from  them  the  plant  constructs  the  more  complex  proteins,  just  as  a 
wall  is  built  from  stones,  and  on  decomposition  the  proteins  are  again 
broken  down  into  these  more  simple  substances.  These  compounds 
are  the  portable  nitrogenous  building  compounds  of  the  plant,  for 
they  are  soluble  in  its  juices  and  hence  may  be  carried  wherever 
needed.  Commonly  included  under  the  general  term  amids  are  com- 
pounds which  the  chemist  calls  amino  acids,  and  others  which  he 
terms  true  amids.  In  this  book,  unless  otherwise  stated,  amids  will 
be  used  to  denote  both  classes  of  substances. 

Proteins  are  the  more  complex  forms  of  crude  protein.  The^^  are 
not  always  soluble,  and  therefore  in  many  cases  not  transportable,  in 
the  juices  of  the  plant.  The  proteins  form  the  basis  of  the  proto- 
plasm, which  is  the  life-holding  part  of  all  plants  and  animals,  and 
so  are  essential  to  all  life. 

The  complexity  of  the  proteins  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  18 
different  amino  acids  have  already  been  identified  which  may  enter 
into  their  composition.  Just  as  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  may  be 
combined  into  innumerable  words,  so  the  possibility  for  the  combina- 
tion of  the  amino  acids  into  different  proteins  is  almost  limitless. 
Thus  far,  scores  of  different  plant  and  animal  proteins  have  been 
separated  and  exam:ined  by  the  chemists.  Some  of  these,  such  as 
egg  albumin,  contain  all  the  known  amino  acids,  while  others,  as  zein 
of  corn  and  gliadin  of  wheat,  lack  one  or  more  of  them.     As  will  be 

■  / 


HOW  PLANTS  GROW  11 

shown  later,  the  incomplete  proteins  may  have  a  lower  value  for 
animal  feeding  than  those  which  are  complete. 

During  the  growth  of  the  plant,  amids  are  constantly  being  formed 
in  the  living  cells  out  of  sugar  or  starch  and  the  nitrates  and  other 
mineral  salts.  These  amids  are  continually  being  carried  to  needed 
points  and  there  changed  into  the  proteins,  and  as  a  consequence  do 
not  usually  accumulate  in  the  plant.  Just  as  starch  and  sugar  are 
changed  one  into  the  other  in  the  f)lant,  so  the  proteins  and  amids 
may  be  changed  one  into  the  other  as  plant  necessity  may  require. 
When  germination  starts  in  a  seed,  an  enzyme,  or  ferment,  it  contains 
acts  on  the  insoluble  proteins  stored  in  and  about  the  germ  and 
changes  them  to  soluble  amids,  so  that  the  nitrogen  may  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  newly  forming  parts  of  the  plantlet.  But  little  crude 
protein  is  found  in  the  older,  woody  parts  of  plants,  the  greater  por- 
tion always  being  concentrated  at  the  points  of  growth ;  i.  e.,  in  the 
leaves,  flowers,  and  seeds. 

Plants  support  animal  life. — It  is  Nature's  plan  that  plants  shall 
use  energy  supplied  by  the  sun  in  building  inorganic  matter  taken 
from  earth  and  air  into  organic  compounds.  In  this  process  the  sun 
energy  employed  becomes  latent,  or  hidden.  Animals  can  not  directly 
secure  from  the  sun  the  energy  necessary  for  their  life  but  must 
live  on  the  organic  compounds  built  by  plants.  After  more  or  less 
change  during  digestion,  these  compounds  are  built  into  their  body 
tissues  or  are  broken  down  within  their  bodies  to  produce  heat  and 
energy.  In  the  coal  burning  in  the  grate,  there  reappears  the  energy 
of  the  sun  which  was  stored  in  the  plants  of  ages  ago.  In  a  similar 
manner  the  energy  received  from  the  sun  by  plants  during  their 
growth  is  transformed  into  animal  heat  and  energy.  Plants  are  thus 
sun-power  machines  for  furnishing  food  to  support  animal  life. 

II.    How  THE  Chemist  Groups  Plant  Substances 

As  we  have  seen,  many  different  compounds  are  formed  in  plants, 
some  of  these  being  so  complex  that  their  exact  structure  has  not  yet 
been  determined.  In  studying  feeding  stuff's  it  is  desirable  to  group 
all  plant  compounds  into  a  few  classes,  the  amounts  of  which  can  be 
readily  found  by  chemists.  Accordingly,  in  analyzing  plant  materials 
and  feeding  stuffs,  the  following  classes  or  groups  of  substances  are 
commonly  determined :  water,  ash  or  mineral  matter,  crude  protein, 
fiber,  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  fat.  The  average  percentages  of 
these  in  typical  feeds  are  shown  in  the  following  table,  which  is  taken 
from  Appendix  Table  I.  The  last  column  gives  the  number  of 
analyses  from  which  the  average  composition  has  been  computed  by 
the  authors. 


12  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Chemical  composition  of  typical  feecling  stuffs,  from  Appendix  Table  I 


Inorganic  matter 

Organic  matter 

Feeding  stuff 

Crude 
protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

No.  of 
analyses 

Fiber 

N-free 
extract 

Water 

Ash 

Concen  tra  tes — 

Dent  corn   

Oats    

Wheat    

Wheat    bran    

Flax  seed   

Roughages — 

Timothy  hay 

Red  clover  hay   .... 
Oat  straw                  .  . 

Per  ct. 

10.5 

9.2 

10.2 

10.1 

9.2 

11.6 
12.9 
11.5 
68.4 
73.7 
90.6 

Per  ct. 

1.5 
3.5 
1.9 
6.3 
4.3 

4.9 
7.1 

5.4 
2.8 
1.7 
1.0 

Per  ct. 

10.1 
12.4 
12.4 
16.0 
22.6 

6.2 
12.8 
3.6 
4.1 
2.1 
1.4 

Per  ct. 

2.0 
10.9 
2.2 
9.5 
7.1 

29.9 
25.5 
36.3 

8.7 
6.3 
0.8 

Per  ct. 

70.9 
59.6 
71.2 
53.7 
23.2 

45.0 
38.7 
40.8 
14.8 
15.4 
6.1 

Per  ct. 

5.0 
4.4 
2.1 
4.4 
33.7 

2.5 
3.1 
2.4 
1.2 

O.S 
0.1 

440 

490 

858 

7,742 

50 

221 
76 
41 

Kentucky   bluegrass. 

Corn  silage 

Mangels               

32 
121 

38 

Water. — To  determine  the  amount  of  water  in  a  feed,  the  chemist 
weighs  a  sample  before  and  after  drying  in  an  oven  at  a  temperature 
of  212°  F.  for  several  hours.  Volatile  compounds,  such  as  give 
various  plants  their  characteristic  odors,  are  driven  off  in  addition  to 
the  water  by  heating,  but  their  weight  is  insignificant.  The  table 
shows  that  even  such  "dry"  feeds  as  corn,  oats,  wheat,  and  wheat 
bran  contain  9  per  ct.  or  more  of  water.  Timothy  and  clover  hay 
contain  still  more  water,  and  such  succulent  feeds  as  green  grass, 
corn  silage,  and  mangels  are  largely  water. 

Ash,  or  mineral  matter. — The  chemist  next  burns  the  sample  and 
finds  the  weight  of  ash,  or  mineral  inatter,  which  is  left.  The  table 
shows  that  100  lbs.  of  corn  or  wheat  contains  less  than  2  lbs.  of  ash, 
while  oats,  with  their  strawy  hulls,  and  wheat  bran,  consisting  of  the 
outer  coats  of  the  wheat  grain,  carry  more.  The  hays  and  straws  are 
higher  in  ash  than  such  grains  as  corn  and  wheat,  due  to  the  accumu- 
lation of  mineral  matter  in  the  leaves  during  growth,  to  soil  washed 
upon  the  growing  plants  by  rain,  and  to  dust  settling  on  the  roughage 
before  it  is  housed.  Such  foreign  material  is  not  really  plant  ash, 
but  of  necessity  is  reported  as  such.  Owing  to  their  high  water  con- 
tent, the  ash  in  100  lbs.  of  fresh  grass,  silage,  and  mangels  is  low. 

The  ash  and  water  of  plants  together  constitute  the  so-called 
inorganic  matter;  the  other  compounds — crude  protein,  carbohydrates, 
and  fat — are  termed  the  organic  matter. 

Crude  protein. — The  process  of  determining  the  nitrogenous  con- 


HOW  PLANTS  GROW  13 

stituents  of  feeding  stuffs  is  too  complicated  for  presentation  here. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  nitrogen  content  is  found,  and  the  result  multi- 
plied by  6.25  to  give  the  crude  protein,  since  about  16  per  ct.  of  plant 
protein  is  nitrogen  (100  ^-  16  ^  6.25).  From  the  table  we  learn  that 
100  lbs.  of  wheat  bran  contains  16.0.  lbs.  of  crude  protein,  while  the 
amount  in  wheat  is  12.4  lbs.  and  in  dent  corn  only  10.1  lbs.  per  100  lbs. 
Red  clover  hay  contains  over  twice  as  much  crude  protein  as  timothy 
hay. 

Fiber. — The  woody  portion  of  a  feeding  stuff  is  determined  by 
boiling  a  sample  successively  in  weak  acid  and  alkali  and  washing 
out  the  dissolved  matter.  That  which  remains  is  termed  fiber.  Fiber, 
which  consists  mostly  of  cellulose,  is  less  digestible  and  hehce  has  a 
lower  nutritive  value  than  the  other  nutrients  of  feeding  stuffs. 
Corn  contains  but  2.0  and  wheat  only  2.2  per  ct.  of  fiber,  while, 
owing  to  the  woody  hulls,  oats  contain  10.9  per  ct.  Most  roughages, 
especially  the  straws,  are  much  higher  in  fiber  than  the  concentrates. 
Mangels  contain  but  0.8  per  ct.  fiber;  were  they  dried  to  the  same 
water  content  as  oats  they  would  contain  only  7.7  per  ct.  fiber — less 
than  oats. 

Fat. — A  sample  of  the  pulverized  dried  fodder  is  treated  with  ether, 
which  dissolves  out  the  fats  and  also  the  waxes  and  resins,  the  chloro- 
phyll, or  green  coloring  matter,  and  similar  substances.  This,  called 
ether  extract  in  works  on  plant  analysis,  is  for  convenience  termed  fat 
in  this  work.  The  ether  extract  of  seeds  is  nearly  all  true  fat  or  oil, 
while  that  of  the  leaves  and  stems  of  plants  contains  much  chlorophyll, 
wax,  etc.  Corn  and  oats  carry  more  fat  than  the  other  cereals.  Some 
seeds,  such  as  flax  seed,  are  so  rich  in  oil  that  it  may  be  extracted  from 
them  by  crushing  and  subsequent  pressure. 

Nitrogen-free  extract. — The  nitrogen-free  extract,  expressed  in  the 
tables  in  this  book  as  N-free  extract,  embraces  the  substances  that  are 
extracted  from  the  dry  matter  of  plants  by  treatment  with  weak  acids 
and  alkalies  under  standard  conditions,  less  the  crude  protein,  fat,  and 
ash.  It  is  determined  by  difference  and  not  by  direct  analysis.  The 
total  dry  matter  in  a  feeding  stuff  minus  the  sum  of  the  ash,  crude 
protein,  fiber,  and  fat,  equals  the  nitrogen-free  extract.  It  embraces 
the  sugars,  starches,  pentoses,  non-nitrogenous  organic  acids,  etc.,  of 
the  plant.  The  nitrogen-free  extract  is  more  soluble  and  hence  more 
digestible  than  the  fiber,  and  thus  has  a  higher  nutritive  value.  Over 
70  per  ct.  of  both  corn  and  wheat  is  nitrogen-free  extract,  largely 
starch.  The  roughages,  carrying  much  woody  fiber,  contain  less  of 
these  more  soluble  carbohydrates  than  the  concentrates.  The  nitro- 
gen-free extract  and  fiber  together  constitute  the  carbohydrates. 

Roughages  and  concentrates. — These  terms  are  used  to  differen- 


14  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

tiate  feeding  stuffs  of  a  coarse,  bulky  nature  from  those  which  are 
more  condensed  and  nutritious. 

Concentrates  are  feeding  stuffs  of  condensed  nature,  which  are  low 
in  liber  and  hence  furnish  a  large  amount  of  digestible  matter. 
Examples  of  this  class  of  feeds  are  the  various  grains,  as  Indian  corn, 
wheat,  and  oats,  and  milling  by-products  of  high  feeding  value,  as 
wheat  bran,  linseed  meal,  gluten  feed,  etc. 

Roughages  are  the  coarser  feeding  stuffs,  which  are  high  in  fiber  and 
supply  a  lower  percentage  of  digestible  matter.  Such  feeds  as  hay, 
corn  fodder,  straw,  and  silage  belong  to  this  class.  Some  of  the  low- 
grade  milling  by-products,  such  as  oat  hulls,  ground  corncobs,  and 
peanut  hulls  are  roughages,  rather  than  concentrates,  for  the}^  are 
largely  fiber  and  furnish  but  little  nutriment.  Roots  are  watery  and 
bulky,  and  contain  relatively  little  nutriment  per  pound,  yet  based 
on  the  composition  of  the  dry  substance  they  are  more  like  concen- 
trates than  roughages,  as  they  are  low  in  fiber.  They  are  really 
watery,  or  diluted,  concentrates,  tho  for  convenience  they  are  included 
under  fresh  green  roughages  in  Appendix  Table  I. 

III.     The  Study  of  an  Acre  of  Corn 

The  manner  in  which  plants  grow  and  store  nutrients  is  well  shown 
by  a  study  of  Indian  corn,  the  greatest  of  our  agricultural  plants. 

Changes  in  a  growing  corn  crop. — By  analyzing  corn  plants  at 
various  stages  from  July  24,  when  they  were  about  4  ft.  high,  until 
Oct.  8,  when  the  kernels  were  hard,  Jones  of  the  Indiana  Station  ^ 
secured  the  following  data,  based  on  an  average  stand  of  10,000  stalks 
per  acre. 

Cofupositiou  of  an  acre  of  Indian  corn  at  different  stages 


Total  wt. 

Dry 

Crude 

Nfree 

Stage  of  growth                   of  green 

matter 

Ash 

protein 

Fiber 

extract 

Fat 

crop 

in  crop 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Four  feet  high,  July  24     5,138 

731 

90 

149 

170 

282 

40 

First  tassels,  Aug.  G..    18,827 

2,245 

195 

360 

670 

977 

42 

Silks  drying,  Aug.  28.    24,327 

4,567 

272 

436 

1,203 

2,606 

49 

Milk  stage,  Sept.  10  . .    2G,710 

6,174 

328 

544 

1,361 

3,846 

95 

Glazing  stage,  Sept.  24  23,750 

8,104 

389 

566 

1,523 

5,425 

202 

Silage  stage,  Oct.  1 .  .  .   25,275 

8,929 

369 

660 

1,602 

6,084 

215 

Ready  to  shock,  Oct.  8 .   22,253 

9,412 

383 

691 

1,737 

6,336 

265 

From  July  24,  at  a  stage  when  sometimes  unwisely  fed  as  soilage, 
to  Aug.  28,  when  the  silks  were  drying,  the  crop  increased  over 
19,000  lbs.  in  total  weight  and  nearly  4,000  lbs.  in  dry  matter.     The 

ilnd.  Bui.  175;  see  also  Ladd,  N.  Y.   (Geneva)   Rpt.  1889. 

r 


HOW  PLANTS  GROW 


15 


increase  in  total  weight  was  thereafter  less  rapid,  reaching  the  maxi- 
mum when  the  kernels  were  in  the  milk  stage.  After  this  the  gross 
weight  decreased  by  over  4,000  lbs.,  due  to  drying  out  as  the  crop 
matured.  The  dry  matter,  however,  continued  to  increase  rapidly 
until  the  plants  were  fully  ripe.  Indeed,  in  less  than  a  month  follow- 
ing Aug.  28  the  acre  of  corn  stored  over  3,500  lbs,  of  dry  matter! 
When  four  feet  high  the  crop  was  nearly  86  -per  ct.  water  and  only 
14  per  ct.  dry  matter;  while  when  the  kernels  were  hard  and  the 
husks  dry  over  42  per  ct.  was  dry  matter.  The  mineral  matter,  or 
ash,  increased  rapidly  until  the  plants  reached  their  full  height. 


■  CRUDE  PROTCIN 
!  FIBER 
:  NITROGEN-FREE    EXTRACT 


FIRST  TASSELS 


GLAZING  STAGE 


SILAGE  STAGE 


Fig,  6. — Nutrients  in  Corn  Plants  at  Various  Stages 

Tlie  shaded  areas  in  the  legend  represent  the  amount  of  crude  protein,  fiber, 
nitrogen-free  extract,  and  fat  in  corn  plants  at  various  stages.  (From  In- 
diana Station.) 


The  most  rapid  increase  in  crude  protein,  the  nitrogenous  portion, 
occurred  in  the  period  before  the  plants  were  tasseled,  when  cell 
growth  was  most  active,  but  some  increase  occurred  until  the  plants 
reached  maturity,  Altho  amids — the  building-stones  of  the  proteins — 
were  constantly  being  formed  during  the  development  of  tlie  plants, 
they  were  in  turn  quickly  built  over  into  the  more  complex,  stable 
proteins.  Hence  it  was  found  in  further  studies  that  the  amount  of 
amids  did  not  increase  after  the  plants  were  silked,  while  there  was  a 
steady  storage  of  true  protein  up  to  maturity. 


16  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Since  the  stalk  of  the  corn  plant  must  be  strong  and  sturdy  to  carry 
the  abundant  foliage  and  the  heavy  ear,  the  fiber  increased  rapidly 
until  the  woody  framework  was  grown. 

The  table  shows  that  the  nitrogen-free  extract,  the  most  valuable 
portion  of  the  carbohydrates,  made  up  of  sugars,  starch,  and  the  other 
more  soluble  carbohydrates,  increased  more  than  2.5  tons  between 
tasseling  and  ripening.  This  increase  was  chiefly  starch,  for,  altho 
sugars  were  being  steadily  formed  in  the  leaves  of  the  plants,  they 
were  being  continuously  transferred  to  other  parts,  especially  the 
swelling  kernels  of  the  ear,  where  they  were  changed  to  starch. 
Another  portion  of  the  sugars  was  changed  into  cellulose  to  form  the 
woody  framework  of  the  plant  structure.  The  elements  of  a  third 
portion  were  combined  with  nitrates  and  other  mineral  matter  from 
the  soil  to  form  the  nitrogenous  amids  and  proteins. 

At  the  milk  stage,  starch  formed  less  than  a  fifth  of  the  nitrogen- 
free  extract,  but  after  this  it  increased  rapidly  as  it  was  stored  in 
the  maturing  kernels.  From  the  milk  stage  to  the  date  when  the  com 
was  ready  to  shock,  less  than  a  month,  there  was  a  gain  of  nearly 
2,500  lbs.  of  nitrogen-free  extract,  over  a  ton  of  which  was  starch. 
This  shows  plainly  the  heavy  losses  of  valuable  nutrients  which  occur 
when  a  crop  of  corn  is  harvested  too  early. 

In  producing  this  acre  of  corn,  probably  not  over  10  lbs.  of  seed  was 
placed  in  the  ground  in  the  spring  time.  From  this  insignificant 
beginning,  by  the  following  October,  about  130  days  later,  the  resultant 
plants  had  gathered  inorganic  matter — carbon  dioxid  from  the  air,  and 
water,  nitrogen,  and  mineral  matter  from  the  soil — and  built  all  these, 
first  into  primary  organic  forms,  and  finally  into  complex  organic 
parts  of  their  structure.  The  product  of  such  building  amounted  to 
over  11  tons  of  green  or  4.7  tons  of  dry  matter,  nearly  all  available 
for  nourishing  the  animals  of  the  farm  and,  thru  them,  man.  This  is  a 
forceful  illustration  of  Nature's  wonderful  processes  of  food  produc- 
tion occurring  all  about  us  under  the  guiding  hand  of  man. 

The  end  of  plant  effort. — In  the  life  of  the  plant,  we  find  that  the 
first  effort  is  toward  self-establishment  and  enlargement.  At  this 
time  all  the  material  formed  in  the  plant  is  transferred  to  the  growing 
parts.  As  the  plant  approaches  maturity,  its  energies  are  changed 
from  growth  to  reproduction,  or  the  formation  of  seed.  For  example, 
in  the  corn  plants  the  nutrients  are  now  poured  in  a  steady  current 
into  the  ear,  where  the  kernels  rapidly  develop.  In  each  of  these 
grains  is  the  germ — a  miniature  plant — composed  largely  of  protein, 
about  which  is  stored  a  generous  supply  of  rich  nutrients — proteins, 
starch,  sugar,  oil,  and  mineral  matter — all  in  compact,  concentrated 
form  after  Nature's  choicest  plan,  to  nourish  the  new  life  which  is  to 
follow  if  the  kernel  finds  lodgment  in  the  soil. 


HOW  PLANTS  GROW  17 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  10  elements  essential  for  plant  growth  and  4  others  which  are 
commonly  found  in  plants. 

2.  Make  a  sketch   of  a  growing  plant,   showing  where  it  secures  each   essen- 
tial element. 

3.  How  do  legumeis  indirectly  use  free  nitrogen  gas  from  the  air? 

4.  How  are  the  first  simple  plant  compounds  formed? 

5.  Define    carbohydrates.     State   what   classes   of   compounds    are    included   in 
this  group  and  tell  what  you  can  about  each. 

6.  How  do  fats  and  carbohydrates  differ  in  composition? 

7.  Distinguish  between  crude  protein,  proteins,  and  amids. 

8.  Why  do  not  the  amids  accumulate  in  the  plant  during  its  growth? 

9.  In  analyzing  feeding  stuffs,  what  groups  of  plant  substances  do  chemists 
usually  determine? 

10.  How  is  the  amount  of  each  found? 

11.  What  is  meant  by  concentrates  and  roughages? 

12.  Discuss  the   storage   in  the  growing  corn  plant  of  the  various  nutrients, 
especially  the  carbohydrates. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  ANIMAL  BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 

I.     The  Composition  of  the  Animal  Body 

Having  studied  the  composition  of  plants  and  the  manner  in  which 
they  grow,  let  us  now  study  the  composition  of  the  bodies  of  farm 
animals,  which  are  nourished  by  plants. 

The  animal  body. — The  bodies  of  the  higher  animals  consist  of  a 
bony  skeleton,  chiefly  of  mineral  matter,  surrounded  by  an  elaborate 
muscular  system.  Fatty  tissue  permeates  the  bones  and  muscles,  filling 
in  and  rounding  out  the  body  form,  and  around  all  is  the  enveloping 
skin.  Within  the  body  cavity  are  the  various  special  organs,  such  as 
the  heart,  stomach,  etc.,  designed  for  dissolving,  distributing,  and 
utilizing  the  nutrients  of  the  food  and  for  disposing  of  the  waste. 
All  these  organs  are  nitrogenous  or  protein  in  nature,  as  are  also  a 
part  of  the  organic  matter  of  the  bones  and  a  large  portion  of  the 
nerves,  which  control  and  direct  all  body  activities. 

Therefore,  one  of  the  fundamental  differences  between  plants  and 
animals  is  that  in  animals  the  walls  of  the  body  cells  are  made  chiefly 
of  protein,  while  in  plants  the  walls  of  the  cells  are  composed  of  cellu- 
lose, which  is  a  carbohydrate.  Furthermore,  in  plants  starch,  another 
carbohydrate,  is  the  chief  form  in  which  reserve  food  is  stored.  In 
animals,  on  the  other  hand,  nearly  all  the  reserve  food  is  stored  in  the 
form  of  fat.  Tho  small  amounts  of  glucose  and  glycogen,  or  animal 
starch,  perform  important  functions  in  the  bodies  of  animals,  as  we 
shall  see  later  in  this  chapter,  these  carbohydrates  at  no  time  form  an 
appreciable  part  of  the  animal's  weight. 

Composition  of  animals. — Over  60  years  ago  Lawes  and  Gilbert, 
the  famous  English  agricultural  scientists,  analyzed  the  entire  bodies 
of  several  farm  animals — a  task  involving  much  labor.  During  recent 
years  similar  studies  have  been  made  at  certain  of  the  American  experi- 
ment stations.  The  following  table,^  which  summarizes  some  of  these 
investigations,  shows  that  the  composition  of  the  bodies  of  farm  animals 
varies  greatly  according  to  their  age  and  degree  of  fatness: 

1  Data  for  cattle  from  Haecker,  Proc.  Amer.  Soc.  Anim.  Prod.,  1914,  and  for 
sheep  and  swine  from  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  Philosophical  Transactions,   1859. 

18 


THE  ANIMAL  BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM  10 

Composition  of  the  bodies  of  farm  animals  * 

Water  Protein  Fat  Ash 

Per  ct.  Per  ct.  Per  ct.  Per  ct. 

Calf,   wt.    100   lbs 71.8  ll).9  4.0  4.3 

Calf,   wt.   300   lbs 66.3  19.0  10.2  4.5 

(iiowing  steer,  wt.  700  lbs 60.3  18.6  16.0  4.5 

Partly  fat  steer,  wt.   1,000  lbs 53.0  17.0  25.6  3.8 

Fat  steer,  wt.   1,200  lbs 48.0  16.6  31.1  3.7 

Very  fat  steer,  wt.   1,500  lbs 43.5  15.7  37.7  3.2 

Fat    lamb     52.3  13.4  31.2  3.2 

Sheep,  before  fattening   61.0  15.7  19.9  3.4 

Half-fat  sheep    55.2  15.4  25.9  3.5 

Fat  sheep   46.2  13.0  37.9  3.0 

Very  fat  sheep   37.1  11.5  48.3  3.1 

Hog,  before  fattening 58.1  14.5  24.6  2.8 

Fat  hog 43.0  11.4  43.9  1.7 

*  Not  including  contents  of  digestive  tract. 

The  table  shows  that  71.8  per  ct.  of  the  body  of  a  100-lb.  calf  is 
water  and  that  the  proportion  of  water  steadily  grows  less  as  the 
animal  matures  and  fattens,  the  body  of  a  very  fat  1,500-lb.  steer 
containing  only  43.5  per  ct.  water.  The  percentage  of  protein  remains 
quite  constant  during  growth  but  decreases  as  the  animal  fattens. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  percentage  of  fat  increases  gradually  during 
growth,  and  more  rapidly  while  fattening.  Over  one-third  of  the 
carcass  of  the  fattened  1,500-lb.  steer  is  fat.  The  percentage  of  ash, 
or  mineral  matter,  shows  the  least  change,  but  decreases  as  the  animal 
fattens,  since  the  fatty  tissue  contains  but  little  mineral  matter. 
Similar  changes  occur  in  the  bodies  of  sheep  and  swine  as  the  animals 
mature  and  fatten.  In  general,  the  bodies  of  sheep  and  swine  at  the 
same  degree  of  fatness  contain  less  water  and  protein  and  considerably 
more  fat  than  those  of  cattle.  The  fat  hog,  for  example,  contains 
43.9  per  ct.  fat  and  only  11.4  per  ct.  protein.  Due  to  their  small 
skeletons,  the  bodies  of  swine  contain  less  ash  than  those  of  cattle  and 
sheep. 

II,    Digestion 

The  changes  which  food  undergoes  within  the  digestive  tract  of 
animals  to  separate  the  useful  portion  from  the  waste  matter  and 
prepare  it  for  absorption  and  final  use  in  the  body  are  known  as 
digestion. 

Nutrients  and  rations. — In  discussing  stock  feeding  it  is  necessary 
to  understand  clearly  what  is  meant  by  each  of  the  following  terms : 

The  term  nutrient  is  applied  to  any  food  constituent  or  group  of 
food  constituents  of  the  same  general  chemical  composition,  that  aid  in 
the  support  of  animal  life.     Crude  protein,  the  carbohydrates,  and 


20  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

fat  constitute  the  generally  recognized  classes  of  nutrients,  altho  air, 
water,  and  mineral  matter  might  likewise  be  so  termed. 

The  term  digestible  nutrient  covers  that  portion  of  each  nutrient 
which  may  be  digested  and  taken  into  the  body. 

A  ration  is  the  feed  allowed  for  a  given  animal  during  a  day  of 
24  hours,  whether  all  is  fed  at  one  time  or  in  portions  at  different 
times, 

A  balanced  ration  is  one  which  furnishes  the  several  nutrients — 
crude  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat — in  such  proportion  and  amount 
as  will  properly  nourish  a  given  animal  for  24  hours. 

The  alimentary  canal. — The  alimentary  canal  is  a  long,  tortuous 
tube  passing  thru  the  animal  from  mouth  to  vent,  enlarged  in  places 
for  the  storage   of  food  or  waste.     It   includes   the   mouth,   gullet, 


^'  C 


Y 


Fig.  7. — Diagram  of  the  Digestive  Tract  of  the  Cow 

A,  Salivary  glands;  b,  gullet;  c,  paunch,  or  first  stomach  (Only  a  small  part 
of  the  paunch  is  here  visible,  the  rear  portion  being  hidden  by  the  intestines)  ; 
d,  honeycomb,  or  second  stomach;  e,  manyplies,  or  third  stomach;  f,  fourth,  or 
true  stomach;  g,  duodenum,  or  first  part  of  small  intestine;  h,  mesenteric  part 
of  small  intestine;  i,  caecum;  j,  colon;  k,  rectum;  1,  point  of  entrance  of  bile 
duct  into  duodenum;  m,  point  of  entrance  of  pancreatic  duct  into  duodenum. 
The  intestines  are  spread  out  somewhat  in  this  diagram. 

stomach,  small  intestine,  and  large  intestine.  Within  its  linings  are 
organs  which  secrete  the  various  fluids  of  digestion,  and  into  it,  from 
other  organs  located  near  by,  pour  still  other  digestive  fluids.  Within 
its  walls  are  nerves  controlling  its  action,  arteries  which  nourish  it 
with  fresh  blood,  and  veins  and  lymphatics  which  absorb  and  carry 
from  it  the  products  of  digestion. 

Ruminants  (animals  which  chew  the  cud),  including  the  ox,  sheep, 
and  goat,  have  much  more  complicated  digestive  tracts  than  other 
animals.  In  the  horse  and  pig  the  gullet  is  a  simple  muscular  tube 
passing  from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach.     In  ruminants  the  gullet  is 


THE  ANIMAL  BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM  21 

expanded  just  before  the  true  stomach  is  reached  into  three  compart- 
ments of  great  aggregate  capacity,  the  first  and  by  far  the  largest  of 
which  is  the  paunch;  the  second,  the  honeycomb;  and  the  third,  the 
manyplies.  The  4  stomachs  of  a  full  grown  steer  may  hold  over  250 
quarts,  while  the  single  stomach  of  a  horse  holds  only  12  to  19  quarts, 
and  of  a  pig  about  8.5  quarts. 

The  small  intestine  is  the  long,  folded,  tortuous  tube  into  which  the 
stomach  empties.  It  is  about  130  ft.  long  in  mature  cattle,  70  ft.  in 
horses,  80  ft.  in  sheep,  and  60  ft.  in  swine.  Its  average  capacity  is 
about  as  follows :  cattle,  70  quarts ;  horse,  50  to  65  quarts ;  sheep  and 
swine,  10  quarts.  The  large  intestine,  into  which  the  small  intestine 
empties,  is  larger  in  diameter  but  much  shorter.  In  the  horse,  that 
part  of  the  large  intestine  next  to  the  small  intestine,  called  the 
blind  gut,  or  caecum,  is  greatly  enlarged.  Due  to  this,  the  large 
intestine  of  this  animal  holds  from  120  to  140  quarts.  Were  it  not 
for  this  caecum,  the  horse  would  be  unable  to  consume  and  digest 
large  amounts  of  roughage.  In  cattle  the  large  intestine  has  a  capacity 
of  about  40  quarts,  and  in  sheep  6  quarts.  The  pig,  which  has  neither 
the  4  stomachs  of  the  ruminants  nor  the  large  caecum  of  the  horse,  is 
not  well  fitted  to  use  large  amounts  of  roughage.  His  large  intestine, 
however,  holds  nearly  twice  as  much  as  that  of  the  sheep,  which  aids 
him  somewhat  in  disposing  of  coarse  feed. 

Mastication. — In  the  mouth  the  food  is  crushed  and  ground  by  the 
teeth  and  at  the  same  time  moistened  by  the  alkaline,  somewhat  slimj'-, 
saliva,  moist  and  slippery  masses  being  formed  which  pass  readily 
thru  the  gullet  into  the  stomach.  Exceedingly  large  amounts  of  saliva 
are  secreted  by  the  larger  farm  animals,  especially  when  eating  dry 
feed.  For  example,  a  horse  may  secrete  as  much  as  90  lbs.  during 
24  hours. 

Ruminants  while  eating  chew  their  food  only  enough  to  moisten  it, 
if  dry,  and  form  it  into  masses  of  suitable  size  to  be  swallowed.  The 
gullet  of  ruminants  opens  into  the  first  3  stomachs  thru  a  slit  called 
the  esophageal  groove,  which  has  an  exceedingly  important  function. 
When  the  ox  swallows  the  masses  of  solid  food,  which  are  so  large  as 
to  distend  the  gullet,  on  coming  to  the  slit  they  are  pressed  out  thru  it, 
just  as  would  be  the  case  if  one  tried  to  force  thru  a  rubber  tube  with 
a  slit  in  it  an  object  like  a  ball  which  fitted  it  tightly.  These  masses 
of  food  usually  pass  into  the  paunch  until  it  is  full,  and  then  on  into 
the  honeycomb  instead.  When  hunger  is  satisfied  the  animal  seeks  a 
quiet  place  and  proceeds  to  ruminate,  or  "chew  the  cud."  By  con- 
tractions of  the  muscular  paunch,  the  honeycomb,  and  of  the  gullet 
itself,  the  food  is  forced  back  to  the  mouth  in  "cuds."  Here  each  cud 
is  thoroly  chewed  and  saliva  is  added  until  the  material  becomes  more 


22  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

or  less  souplike.  On  being  resvvallovved,  this  finely  divided  material 
usually  flows  along  the  gullet  past  the  slit,  and  directly  into  the  third 
stomach,  from  which  it  passes  into  the  fourth,  or  true  stomach.  Water 
or  liquid  food,  when  first  swallowed,  may  not  be  forced  thru  the  slit 
into  the  paunch  but  may  pass  at  once  to  the  third  stomach. 

Enzymes.— As  most  of  the  changes  which  food  undergoes  in  diges- 
tion are  effected  thru  enzymes,  their  general  nature  should  be  clearly 
understood.  Enzymes  are  mysterious  organic  compounds  which  are 
able  to  change  or  break  down  other  organic  compounds  without  them- 
selves being  changed  or  broken  down.  To  illustrate  the  action  of 
enzymes,  we  will  take  ptyalin,  the  enzyme  contained  in  the  saliva, 
that  converts  the  starch  of  the  food,  which  is  insoluble,  into  sugar, 
which  is  soluble.  If  starch  is  mixed  with  saliva  and  the  whole  kept  at 
body  temperature,  the  starch  gradually  dissolves,  being  changed  to 
sugar.  Thru  the  action  of  the  ptyalin,  the  complex  starch  molecule  has 
been  cleaved,  or  split,  into  the  simpler  molecules  of  sugar.  If  starch 
is  mixed  merely  with  water,  instead  of  saliva,  this  change  will  not 
occur. 

The  ptyalin  is  not  itself  altered  by  this  process,  for,  if  more  starch  is 
added  and  the  resulting  sugar  removed,  the  process  may  be  repeated 
many  times.  However,  heating  the  enzyme  above  a  certain  tempera- 
ture destroys  it.  At  freezing  temperature  its  action  ceases,  tho  the 
enzyme  is  not  destroyed,  for  on  warming  it  becomes  active  again. 
Ptyalin  acts  best  in  a  neutral  or  slightly  alkaline  solution  and  is 
destroyed  by  the  presence  of  much  acid,  while  some  other  enzymes  act 
only  in  acid  solutions.  Each  of  the  enzymes  of  digestion  is  capable  of 
acting  on  only  one  of  the  groups  of  nutrients — on  proteins,  on  carbo- 
hydrates, or  on  fats. 

Digestion  in  the  mouth. — Not  only  is  the  food  prepared  for  swallow- 
ing in  the  mouth,  but  in  most  animals  the  first  step  in  digestion  occurs 
here,  thru  the  action  of  ptyalin  on  the  starch  in  the  food.  The  saliva 
of  cattle  and  dogs,  however,  contains  little  or  no  ptyalin,  and  that  of 
horses  but  little.  The  saliva  of  swine  contains  a  fair  amount,  and  that 
of  man,  monkeys,  rabbits,  rats,  and  mice  has  the  greatest  starch  digest- 
ing power. 

Digestion  in  the  simple  stomach. — With  such  animals  as  the  horse 
and  pig,  which  have  simple  stomachs,  the  food  passes  directly  from  the 
mouth  thru  the  gullet  to  the  single  stomach.  The  glands  in  the  walls 
of  the  stomach  secrete  the  digestive  fluid  called  gastric  juice.  This 
contains  the  enzymes  pepsin  and  rennin,  and  from  0.2  to  0.5  per  ct.  of 
hydrochloric  acid.  If  the  food  became  acid  as  soon  as  it  reached  the 
stomach  the  action  of  the  ptyalin  of  the  saliva  would  cease  at  once. 
However,  the  first  part  of  the  stomach  does  not  secrete  any  acid, 


THE  ANIMAL  BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 


23 


and  so  the  action  of  the  ptyalin  on  starch  continues  in  this  part  of  that 
organ.  The  intestinal  or  rear  end  of  the  stomach,  on  the  other  hand, 
secretes  much  acid.  Here  the  action  of  the  ptyalin  ceases  and  pepsin 
digestion  becomes  active. 

Pepsin,  which  acts  only  in  weak  acid  solutions,  converts  the  very 
complex  proteins  into  soluble  and  simpler,  tho  still  complex,  products 


Fig.  8. — Longitudinal  Section  of  Stomach  of  the  Horse 

A,  Q'^sopliagiis,  or  gullet;  b,  oesophageal  region  of  stomach,  in  which  no  gastric 
juice  is  secreted;  c,  entrance  of  gullet;  d,  left  extremity  of  stomach;  e,  boundary 
between  oesophageal  region  and  portion  of  stomach  secreting  gastric  juice;  f.  g, 
fundus  gland  region  and  pyloric  gland  region,  in  which  gastric  juice  is  secreted; 
h,  pylorus,  or  ring  of  muscles  closi'ng  the  stomach;  i,  entrance  of  pancreatic  and 
bile  ducts.      (From  Sisson,  "Anatomy  of  the  Domestic  Animals.") 

known  as  proteoses  and  peptones.  Bennin,  the  other  enzyme  of  the 
gastric  juice,  changes  milk  into  a  solid  curd.  Were  it  not  for  this, 
milk  would  pass  on  quickly  into  the  small  intestine  before  its  proteins 
had  been  digested  by  pepsin. 

Soon  after  the  food  reaches  the  stomach,  its  walls  begin  a  series  of 


24  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

regular  contractions  which  pass  in  waves  toward  the  intestinal  end. 
When  digestion  has  progressed  sufficiently,  as  a  contraction  reaches 
the  rear  end  of  the  stomach,  the  ring  of  muscles  which  keeps  the 
stomach  shut  off  from  the  small  intestine  relaxes  and  allows  a  small 
quantity  of  the  semi-liquid  contents  of  the  stomach  to  spurt  thru  into 
the  intestine.  After  this  the  ring  of  muscles  again  contracts,  closing 
the  entrance.  The  stomach  now  slowly  relaxes,  and  soon  the  prpcess 
is  repeated.  By  this  means  the  fluid  matter  is  squeezed  out  and 
carried  into  the  small  intestine,  while  the  more  solid  portions  remain 
behind  for  further  action  by  the  gastric  juice.  Little  or  no  digestion 
of  fat  takes  place  in  the  stomach. 

Stomach  digestion  of  ruminants. — Tho  the  first  three  stomachs  of 
ruminants  secrete  no  enzymes,  but  only  water,  they  are  highly 
important  in  digestion.  The  nutrients  of  plants  are  enclosed  within 
the  cell  walls,  and  where  these  are  of  hard,  thick  cellulose,  as  in  hay 
and  straw,  the  digestive  fluids  can  not  easily  reach  and  attack  the 
nutrients  locked  within.  As  we  have  seen,  when  ruminants  swallow 
solid  food  it  passes  chiefly  into  the  paunch.  Here  it  is  softened  by  the 
moisture,  slowly  but  thoroly  mixed  by  muscular  contractions,  and 
ground  against  the  rough  lining.  All  this  prepares  the  food  for  easy 
digestion  farther  on. 

A  considerable  amount  of  actual  digestion  also  occurs  in  these  first 
stomachs,  especially  in  the  paunch,  thru  the  action  of  bacteria.  The 
bacteria  attack  the  cellulose  and  pentosans  of  the  feed  (for  which 
Nature  has  provided  no  other  means  of  digestion)  and  break  them 
down  with  the  production  of  heat  and  the  formation  of  organic  acids 
and  of  gases,  including  marsh  gas,  carbon  dioxid,  and  hydrogen.  The 
acids  serve  as  food,  the  same  as  do  the  sugars,  but  the  gases  are  useless 
and  are  excreted.  In  this  bacterial  action  the  cell  walls  of  the  feed 
are  broken  down,  setting  free  the  nutrients  contained  within.  Not  only 
do  the  bacteria  digest  cellulose  and  pentosans,  but  they  may  also  attack 
starch  and  sugar.  This  action  is  detrimental,  for  these  nutrients 
would  be  digested  more  efficiently  later  on  in  the  small  intestine,  while 
in  the  bacterial  digestion  a  considerable  part  of  their  feeding  value  is 
lost  thru  the  heat  and  gases  produced  in  the  fermentations.  When 
fresh,  easily  fermented  forage,  such  as  green  clover  or  alfalfa,  is  eaten, 
the  bacterial  action  may  then  be  so  great  that  gas  is  produced  faster 
than  it  can  be  carried  away,  and  "bloat"  results. 

After  rumination,  the  reswallowed  food  passes  chiefly  into  the 
manyplies,  or  third  stomach,  where  it  is  further  ground  between  the 
muscular  folds  before  being  forced  into  the  fourth,  or  true  stomach. 
In  the  latter  the  digestive  processes  are  similar  to  those  in  the  simple 
stomach,  as  previously  described. 


THE  ANIMAL  BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM  25 

Dig'estion  in  the  small  intestine. — When  received  into  the  small 
intestine,  the  partially  digested  food  is  a  semi-liquid  mass.  As  yet, 
the  fats  in  the  food  have  not  been  digested,  and  the  digestion  of  the 
proteins  and  carboh3'drates  is  far  from  complete.  Here  the  work  of 
digestion  proceeds  even  more  vigorously  than  in  the  stomach,  all  classes 
of  nutrients  being  attacked.  The  small  intestine  receives  near  its 
upper  part  digestive  fluids  from  two  outside  organs,  the  liver  and  the 
pancreas,  and  another  digestive  juice  is  secreted  in  the  wall  of  the 
intestine  itself.  Immediately  on  entering  the  small  intestine  the 
inpouring  material  is  changed  from  an  acid  to  an  alkaline  character 
thru  the  rapid  addition  of  bile  and  pancreatic  juice,  both  alkaline. 
This  stops  the  action  of  the  pepsin,  which  works  only  when  acid  is 
present. 

The  pancreatic  juice. — The  pancreatic  juice  is  produced  by  the 
pancreas,  or  sweetbread,  a  slender  gland  lying  just  beyond  the  stomach 
and  connected  with  the  small  intestine  by  a  duct.  The  chief  enzymes 
it  contains  are  trj-psin,  amylase,  and  lipase.  Trypsin,  like  pepsin, 
changes  protein  into  proteoses  and  peptones,  and  is  also  able  to  break 
some  of  these  partially  digested  substances  further  into  amino  acids. 
It  is  believed  that  before  the  food  protein  can  be  absorbed  and  used  by 
the  animal  body  it  must  all  be  cleaved  into  amino  acids,  which,  as  we 
have  seen  in  Chapter  I,  are  the  simple  "building  stones"  from  which 
proteins  are  formed.  Amylase  changes  starch  into  sugar.  Lipase 
splits  fats  into  fatty  acids  and  glycerin.  The  fatty  acids  unite  with 
alkalies  in  the  bile  to  form  soaps,  and  are  absorbed  from  the  intestine 
in  this  form. 

The  bile. — The  bile,  secreted  by  the  liver,  the  largest  organ  in  the 
body,  is  a  greenish  or  golden  colored  fluid,  alkaline  and  extremely 
bitter  in  taste.  It  contains  no  enzymes  but  is  nevertheless  exceedingly 
important  in  digestion,  as  it  furnishes  the  alkalies  necessary  to  change 
the  fatty  acids  formed  by  lipase  into  soaps.  It  also  aids  in  emulsifying 
the  undigested  fat;  i.e.,  breaking  it  up  into  very  minute  droplets,  so 
that  it  can  be  more  readily  acted  on  by  the  lipase.  Furthermore,  in 
some  manner  the  bile  increases  the  digestive  power  of  the  pancreatic 
and  intestinal  juices.  After  performing  its  work,  much  of  the  bile  is 
absorbed  from  the  intestine  and,  passing  back  to  the  liver,  is  used  once 
more. 

The  intestinal  secretion. — The  digestive  fluid  secreted  by  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  small  intestine  contains  several  enzymes,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  erepsin  and  the  invertases.  Erepsin  attacks 
the  proteoses  and  peptones  which  have  escaped  the  action  of  trypsin 
and  breaks  them  up  into  amino  acids.  It  can  not  act  on  protein  which 
has  not  already  been  split  into  proteoses  and  peptones.     The  invertases 


26 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


(sucrase,  maltase,  and  lactase)   change  cane  sugar,  malt  sugar,  and 
milk  sugar  into  the  simpler  glucose-like  sugars. 

Due  to  the  vigorous  action  of  the  enzymes  in  the  small  intestine, 
digestion  is  very  thoro  and  under  ordinary  conditions  little  that  is 
useful  is  lost.  The  larger  portion  of  all  the  digested  matter  is  absorbed 
from  the  small  intestine,  thus  entering  the  body  proper,  as  is  shown 
later  in  this  chapter. 

The  large  intestine. — From  the  small  intestine  the  undigested 
material  passes  into  the  large  intestine.  Little,  if  any,  digestive  fluid 
is  produced  here,  but  a  small  amount  of  digestion  may  go  on  owing  to 
digestive  enzymes  carried  in  from  the  small  intestine  and  to  the  action 
of  bacteria.  The  bacteria  may  not  only  attack  cellulose  but  also  may 
cause  the  putrefaction  of  undigested  protein,  in  which  action  foul- 
smelling  substances  are  formed  which  are  poisonous  if  absorbed  in 
large  quantities.  The  waste,  or  feces,  is  finally  expelled  from  the 
large  intestine.  Besides  undigested  matter,  the  feces  contain  residues 
of  the  digestive  juices  and  countless  bacteria  or  their  remains.  If 
the  large  intestine  is  not  functioning  normally,  the  contents  may 
remain  for  an  undue  time,  and  excessive  putrefaction  may  take  place, 
injuring  the  animal  thru  the  absorption  of  the  poisonous  products 
formed. 

Special  provision  for  the  horse. — As  has  been  mentioned  before,  the 
horse  has  a  large  caecum,  or  blind  gut,  in  partial  compensation  for  its 

small  stomach  and  lack  of 
a  paunch.  The  incom- 
pletely digested  matter 
from  the  small  intestine, 
together  with  the  enzymes 
mixed  with  it,  passes  into 
the  caecum.  Here  the  en- 
zyme action  continues  and 
the  cellulose  of  the  feed  is 
also  attacked  and  digested 
by  bacteria,  as  in  the 
paunch  of  ruminants. 
Due  to  this,  the  horse  is 
able  to  digest  such  feeds 
as  hay  and  straw  quite 
thoroly,  tho  less  com- 
pletely than  can  cattle 
and  sheep. 

Palatability. — The  palatability  of  feeds  is  a  factor  of  no  small 
mportance  in  the  feeding  of  stock.     Experiments  have  shown  that  the 


Fig.  9. — Caecum  of  Horse 

The  entrance  of  the  small  intestine  is  desig- 
nated ( I ) .  The  opening  of  the  caecum  into  the 
large  intestine  is  hidden  from  view.  ( From  Sis- 
son,  "Anatomy  of  the  Domestic  Animals.") 


THE  ANIMAL  BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM  27 

mere  sight  or  smell  of  well-liked  food  will  cause  a  marked  flow  of  saliva 
and  even  cause  some  flow  of  the  gastric  juice.  It  is  reasonable  to 
believe,  therefore,  that  well-liked  feeds  are  digested  better  than  others 
which  may  be  equally  nutritious  but  are  less  palatable. 

Even  with  farm  animals  palatability  is  greatly  influenced  and  con- 
trolled by  familiarity  and  habit  or  custom.  When  corn  silage  is  first 
placed  before  cows,  not  infrequently,  after  sniffing  it,  they  will  let  it 
alone  for  a  time.  They  then  usually  begin  nibbling  at  it,  and  later 
may  gorge  themselves  thereon  if  permitted.  In  such  cases  food  that  at 
first  seems  unpalatable  becomes  palatable. 

In  his  early  experience  the  senior  author  was  feeding  two  lots  of 
fattening  steers,  one  on  shelled  corn  and  the  other  on  shelled  corn 
ground  into  meal,  both  receiving  wheat  bran  in  addition.  After  some 
weeks  of  successful  feeding,  the  rations  for  the  two  lots  were  reversed. 
The  steers  changed  from  corn  meal  to  whole  corn  showed  a  strong  dis- 
like for  the  new  ration,  eating  so  little  at  first  that  they  shrank  in 
weight.  From  this  the  general  conclusion  might  have  been  drawn  that 
shelled  corn  is  less  palatable  than  corn  meal  for  fattening  steers.  But 
the  steers  given  corn  meal  in  place  of  shelled  corn  were  equally  dis- 
satisfied. This  shows  that  custom  and  habit — something  entirely 
extraneous  to  the  food — are  possible  factors  in  palatability.  Every 
practical  stockman  knows  that  to  get  the  best  results  he  must  at  all 
times  provide  feed  for  his  animals  which  is  palatable  and  altogether 
acceptable.  This  may  be  accomplished  in  considerable  degree  by 
steadily  using  the  same  feeds  and  feed  combinations,  and  in  always 
avoiding  sudden  and  violent  changes  in  their  character  and  in  the 
manner  of  feeding. 

Ill,    Metabolism 

We  have  learned  how  digestion  prepares  the  various  nutrients  for 
the  nourishment  of  the  body.  Let  us  now  consider  the  manner  in 
which"  the  digested  nutrients  are  brought  from  the  alimentary  tract 
into  the  body  proper,  and  what  becomes  of  them.  Chemists  and 
physiologists,  working  together  with  skill  and  great  patience,  have 
been  able  quite  fully  to  explain  the  processes  of  digestion.  When  the 
nutrients  leave  the  alimentary  tract  and  enter  the  body,  the  difficulties 
of  following  them  and  learning  what  becomes  of  them  are  much  greater. 
Many  of  the  changes  that  occur  in  the  body  have  been  revealed  by 
persevering  scientists,  but  concerning  others  only  little  of  a  definite 
nature  can  yet  be  told. 

Metabolism. — The  processes  by  which  the  digested  nutrients  of  the 
food  are  absorbed  and  used  for  the  production  of  heat,  work,  and  milk, 
or  built  up  into  the  living  matter  of  the  body,  in  turn  being  broken 


28 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


down    and    once    more    becoming    non-living    matter,    are    termed 
metaholism.- 

The  circulatory  canals  of  the  body. — The  body  of  the  animal  is 
made  up  of  innumerable  cells,  which,  grouped  and  modified  in  myriads 
of  ways,  form  all  its  organs  and  parts.  Everywhere  among  the  cells 
are  minute  spaces  called  lymph  spaces,  which  are  connected  with  the 
lymphatics,  a  set  of  vessels  which  permeate  most  parts  of  the  body. 
In  some  respects  the  lymphatics  resemble  the  veins,  but  they  are 
thinner  and  more  transparent  and  drain  in  only  one  direction — toward 
the  heart.  "Within  these  vessels  is  a  clear  fluid  called  lymph.  These 
vessels  unite  with  one  another,  forming  a  network  in  many  places. 


Fig.  10. — Diagram  of  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood 

1,  Tlie  heart;  2,  artery  carrying  blood  to  tlie  liead  and  fore  limbs;  3,  circula- 
tion thru  the  upper  portion  of  tlie  body;  4,  vein  carrying  blood  from  upper  part 
of  body  back  to  the  heart;  5,  artery  carrying  venous  blood  to  lungs;  G,  circula- 
tion thru  lungs;  7,  vein  carrying  arterial  blood  back  to  heart;  8,  artery  carrying 
blood  to  lower  portion  of  body;  9,  circulation  thru  rear  extremities;  10,  vein 
carrying  blood  to  heart  from  rear  extremities;  11,  artery  carrying  blood  to  in- 
testines; 12,  circulation  thru  intestinal  capillaries;  13,  portal  vein  carrying 
blood  to  liver;  14,  circulation  thru  liver.  (From  Smith,  "Manual  of  Veterinary 
Physiology.") 


Here  and  there  a  trunk  subdivides  into  five  or  six  smaller  vessels,  and 
the  latter  enter  a  nodule-like  body  called  a  lymphatic  gland.  From 
this  gland  come  several  small  vessels,  which,  after  a  short  space,  again 
unite  to  form  a  trunk.  Gradually  these  trunks  unite,  forming  larger 
trunks  until  a  large  duct  and  another  smaller  one  are  formed  which 
enter  veins  in  the  neck. 

The  arteries  and  the  veins  are  the  other  set  of  canals.  These  perme- 
ate every  portion  of  the  body,  the  former  carrying  the  blood  away  from 
the  heart,  and  the  latter  carrying  it  to  the  heart.  At  the  extremities 
of  the  arteries  are  still  more  minute  tubes,  called  capillaries,  which  con- 

2  Constructive  metabolism,  or  the  building-up  processes,  is  termed  anabolism, 
while  the  breaking-down  and  wasting  processes  are  called  catabolism. 


THE  ANIMAL  BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM  29 

nect  them  with-  the  veins.  If  one  extends  his  arms  in  front  of  him  with 
his  finger  tips  touching,  his  body  will  represent  the  heart,  while  one 
arm  will  represent  an  artery  carrying  blood  from  the  heart,  and  the 
other  a  vein  conveying  blood  to  the  heart.  The  touching  fingers  will 
correspond  to  the  capillaries  connecting  the  arteries- with  the  veins,  and 
the  space  all  about  the  fingers  will  represent  the  surrounding  body 
tissues.  In  general,  neither  the  veins  nor  the  arteries  allow  any  sub- 
stance within  them  to  escape  thru-  their  walls  proper.  It  is  thru-  the 
capillaries  that  the  nutritive  matter  carried  by  the  blood  finds  its  way 
into  the  body  tissues  for  their  nourishment,  and  thru  the"  capillaries  and 
the  lymphatics,  in  turn,  the  waste  of  the  body  drains  back  into-  the  blood 
circulation. 

The  tissues  of  the  body  are  thus  everywhere  permeated  by  the  ducts 
of  the  lymphatic  system  and  the  capillaries  of  the  blood  system.  The 
cells  are  bathed  by  lymph,  which  is  the  fluid  that  receives  and  tem- 
porarily holds  all  the  nutritive  substances  and  the  body  wastes. 

The  digested  nutrients  are  absorbed  into  the  circulation  chiefly  thru 
the  walls  of  the  small  intestine.  The  mucous  membrane  lining  it  has  a 
velvety  ap.pearanee,  caused  by  innumerable  minute,  eone-like  projec- 
tions, or  tongues,  called  villi,  which  project  into  the  interior  of  the  intes- 
tinal tube,  thereby  coming  into  intimate  contact  with  its  fluid  contents. 
Within  each  villus  are  lacteals,  or  drainage  tubes  o-f  the  lymphatic 
system,  and  capillaries  of  the  blood  system. 

Digestion  and  absorption  of  fat. — In  discussing  the  manner  in  which 
the  various  nutrients  are  absorbed,  let  us  at  the  same  time  review  their 
digestion,  tracing  just  what  becomes  of  eaeh  after  entering  the  mouth. 

The  fats  of  food  undergo  no  appreciable  digestion  until  they  reach 
the  small  intestine.  Here  thru  the  aid  of  the  bile  they  are  split  by  the 
lipase  of  the  pancreatic  juice  into  fatty  acids  and  glycerin.  The 
alkalies  in  the  bile  then  unite  with  these  fatty  acids  to  form  soaps. 
It  is  believed  that  practically  all  of  the  fats  are  absorbed  in  the  form 
of  soaps  and  glycerin ;  these  are  then  reunited  into  fats  in  the  intestinal 
wall.  Some  of  the  fatty  acids  and  glycerin  formed  by  the  action  of 
the  lipase  may  perhaps  be  absorbed  directly,  without  the  fatty  acids 
being  first  changed  to  soaps.  In  the  villi  of  the  intestinal  Avail  the 
fats  enter  the  lacteals,  forming,  with  the  lymph  a  milky  substance  called 
chyle.  This  is  carried  by  the  lymphatics  and  poured  into  a  vein  near 
the  shoulder,  thus  entering  the  blood  circulation. 

Digestion  and  absorption  of  carbohydrates. — Carbohydrate  diges- 
tion begins  in  the  mouth,  where  the  ptyalin  in  the  saliva  changes  starch 
into  malt  sugar.  This  action  continues  in  the  first  part  of  the  stomach, 
but  ceases  when  the  food  becomes  acid  in  the  rear  end  of  that 
organ.     Simple,  glucose-like  sugars  may  be  absorbed  directly  from  the 


30 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


-Villi  op 


In- 


stomacli  in  small  amounts,  but  nearly  all  the  carbohydrates  are  carried 
on  into  the  small  intestine.  Here  the  starch  which  escaped  being  acted 
upon  in  the  mouth  or  stomach  is  changed  into  malt  sugar  by  amylase, 
an  enzyme  in  the  pancreatic  juice.  The  compound  cane,  malt,  and 
milk  sugars  are  then  split  into  simple  glucose- 
like sugars  by  the  action  of  the  invertases,  en- 
zymes in  the  intestinal  juice.  These  simple, 
glucose-like  sugars,  which  are  the  only  carbo- 
hydrates that  can  be  used  in  the  body,  are  ab'- 
sorbed  thru  the  walls  of  the  small  intestine,  and, 
entering  the  capillaries,  pass  into  the  veins  and 
thence  to  the  liver.  Here  they  are  for  the  most 
part  withdrawn  from  the  blood  and  temporarily 
stored  in  this  organ  as  glycogen,  a  carbohydrate 
which  is  closely  related  to  starch  and,  having 
the  same  percentage  composition,  is  sometimes 
called  animal  starch.  Normally  from  1.5  to  4.0 
per  ct,  of  the  weight  of  the  liver  consists  of 
glycogen.  The  glycogen  stored  in  the  liver  is 
gradually  changed  back  into  glucose,  and  then 
given  out  to  the  system  as  required,  the  amount 
of  glucose  in  the  blood  being  kept  at  about  1  part 
in  1,000.  In  addition  to  the  liver,  all  the  tissues 
of  the  body,  especially  the  muscles,  have  some 
power  to  change  glucose  into  glycogen. 

The  cellulose  and  pentosans  in  the  feed  are 
attacked  by  bacteria  in  the  first  three  stomachs 
of  ruminants,  in  the  caecum  of  horses,  and  to 
some  extent  in  the  large  intestine  of  other  animals.  These  bacteria 
break  down  the  cellulose  and  pentosans  into  organic  acids  and  also 
gases  (marsh  gas,  carbon  dioxid,  and  hydrogen),  heat  being  produced 
in  the  process.  The  gases  are  of  no  value  but  the  organic  acids  serve  as 
food  the  same  as  sugars. 

Digestion  and  absorption  of  protein. — The  proteins  of  the  food 
are  first  attacked  in  the  stomach  by  pepsin,  which  splits  them  into 
proteoses  and  peptones.  These  are  soluble  and  are  simpler  in  com- 
position than  the  proteins,  but  are  still  very  complex  in  structure. 
The  proteoses  and  peptones,  together  with  protein  which  escapes  action 
by  pepsin,  pass  into  the  small  intestine.  There  trypsin,  an  enzyme  in 
the  pancreatic  juice,  not  only  splits  the  undigested  protein  into  pro- 
teoses and  peptones,  but  also  digests  them  further,  splitting  them  into 
amino  acids,  which  are  much  simpler  than  the  proteoses  and  peptones. 
Erepsin,  an  enzyme  in  the  intestinal  juice,  also  acts  on  the  proteoses 


Fig.  11 

THE   Small 

TESTINE 

A,  Lining  cells  of 
intestine;  b,  net  work 
of  capillaries;  c,  lac- 
teals.  For  the  sake 
of  simplicity  the  mus- 
cle fibers  in  the  villi 
are  not  shown  in  this 
diagram.  (After 

Cadiat. ) 


THE  ANIMAL  BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM  31 

and  peptones  and  splits  them  into  amino  acids.  Thus  thiii  the  action 
of  the  trypsin  and  erepsin  all  the  protein  which  can  be  digested  is  split 
into  amino  acids.  The  amino  acids  are  absorbed  thru  the  walls  of  the 
small  intestine  and  pass  into  the  blood.  They  are  then  carried  into  the 
general  circulation,  and  from  the  blood  each  of  the  parts  of  the  body — 
muscles,  organs,  etc. — absorbs  a  certain  amount  to  be  used  for  repair  or 
in  growth. 

A  good  picture  of  what  takes  place  in  protein  digestion  can  be  had 
by  likening  the  food  proteins  to  a  house  being  taken  down  by  a  builder 
in  order  that  he  may  construct  another  from  the  materials.  An  animal 
eating  protein  compounds  cannot  use  them  just  as  they  are,  but  must 
first  take  them  apart  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  and  from  the  parts 
reconstruct  other  kinds  of  protein  suitable  for  its  own  use.  In  other 
words,  the  proteins  must  have  a  different  architecture  from  those  in 
the  plants.  The  proteoses  and  peptones  may  be  likened  to  the  roof 
and  walls  of  the  house.  These  walls  and  roof  can  be  separated  into 
bricks  and  tiles,  which  are  represented  by  the  amino  acids ;  and  from 
these  the  animal,  beginning  anew,  can  construct  new  proteins  of  the 
exact  kind  its  body  ma.y  require. 

Mineral  matter;  water. — The  mineral  matter  in  feeding  stuffs  is  not 
acted  upon  by  any  enzymes,  but  is  dissolved  in  its  passage  thru  the 
digestive  tract,  especially  in  the  stomach  by  the  acid  in  the  gastric  juice. 
It  is  absorbed  chiefly  from  the  small  intestine. 

Water  requires  no  digestion  and  is  absorbed  chiefly  from  the  small 
intestine,  but  also  to  some  extent  from  the  stomach  and  large  intestine. 

Distribution  and  use  of  absorbed  nutrients. — We  have  seen  that  the 
digested  fats  which  are  to  nourish  the  body  are  poured  into  the  blood 
current  by  way  of  the  lymphatics,  while  the  glucose  and  the  amino  acids 
enter  the  blood  directly  thru  the  capillaries  and  veins.  The  veins  from 
the  small  intestine  unite  and  become  the  portal  vein,  which  passes  the 
blood  thru  the  liver  and  on  into  the  heart.  The  various  nutrients, 
having  been  mingled  with  the  blood,  are  carried  thru  the  circulation  to 
the  capillaries. 

These  are  so  constructed  that,  when  the  blood  finally  reaches  them, 
the  nutrients  it  carries  pass  thru  their  walls  and  into  the  lymph  that 
bathes  the  body  cells.  In  this  manner  all  the  nutrients,  having  been 
especially  prepared  and  transported,  nourish  every  part  of  the  body. 

The  nutrients  may  be  oxidized,  or  burned,  to  warm  the  animal,  or  to 
produce  energy  to  carry  on  the  vital  processes  and  to  perform  work,  as 
shown  in  the  following  chapters.  In  case  more  nutrients  are  supplied 
than  are  required  for  these  purposes,  the  excess  may  be  built  into  body 
tissue  proper,  as  shown  in  Chapter  V.  The  glucoses  may  be  converted 
into  fats  and  stored  as  body  fat,  as  may  also  the  fats  derived  directly 


32  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

from  the  food  fats.  The  amino  acids  may  be  built  up  into  body  protein 
or,  if  not  needed  for  this  purpose,  a  portion  of  their  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen  may  be  changed  into  fat,  while  the  nitrogen  is  excreted 
from  the  body.  The  highest  use  of  the  proteins,  however,  is  the  forma- 
tion of  nitrogenous  tissues. 

Disposal  of  waste. — As  we  have  seen,  the  undigested  food,  together 
with  some  other  w^aste  material,  is  voided  in  the  feces.  Nearly  all  of 
the  nitrogenous  waste  resulting  from  the  breaking  down  of  protein  in 
the  body  is  excreted  in  the  urine  thru  the  kidneys,  tho  a  trace  is  given 
off  in  the  sweat  and  some  in  the  feces.  In  mammals  this  waste  takes 
the  form  principally  of  urea.  Some  of  the  mineral  matter,  especially 
calcium,  magnesium,  and  phosphorus,  is  excreted  in  the  feces.  The 
rest  is  voided  in  the  urine. 

In  breaking  up  the  food  nutrients  within  the  body  for  the  produc- 
tion of  heat  and  in  the  changes  which  occur  in  building  them  into  body 
tissues,  carbon  dioxid  is  evolved.  Most  of  this  is  absorbed  from  the 
stomach  and  intestines  and  is  carried  in  the  blood  to  the  lungs,  where 
it  is  passed  out  in  breathing.  Some  of  the  marsh  gas  produced  by 
fermentations  in  the  stomach  of  herbivora  is  absorbed  into  the  blood  and 
thrown  out  by  the  lungs. 

Summary. — In  Chapter  I  we  learned  how  the  various  inorganic 
compounds  taken  by  plants  from  earth,  air,  and  water  are  built  into 
organic  plant  compounds,  and  how  in  such  building  the  energy  of  the 
sun  becomes  latent  or  hidden.  In  this  chapter  we  have  learned  how 
the  animal,  feeding  on  plants,  separates  the  useful  from  the  waste  by 
mastication  and  digestion,  and  how  the  digested  nutrients,  after  under- 
going more  or  less  change,  are  carried  from  the  alimentary  canal  to 
the  body  tissues  and  used  for  building  the  body,  for  warming  it,  or  in 
perforaiing  work.  All  the  energy  manifested  by  living  animals  and 
the  heat  produced  in  their  bodies  represent  the  energy  of  the  sun  orig- 
inally stored  in  food  substances  by  plants.  "With  the  breaking  down  of 
the  nutrients  in  the  bodies  of  animals,  and  in  the  decay  of  the  animal 
substance  itself,  the  organic  matter  loses  the  condition  of  life  and  falls 
back  to  the  inorganic  condition,  once  more  becoming  a  part  of  the  earth, 
air,  and  water.  After  this  it  is  again  gathered  up  by  the  plants  and 
once  more  starts  on  the  upward  path.  Such  is  the  eternal  round  of 
Nature,  in  which  plants,  animals,  the  energy  of  the  sun,  and  the  mys- 
terious guiding  principle  of  life  all  play  their  parts. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  State  two  fundamental  differences  in  the  composition  of  plants  and  animals. 

2.  How  does  the  composition  of  an  animal's  body  change  as  it  grows?  As  it 
fattens  ? 


THE  ANIMAL  BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM  33 

3.  Define  digestion,  digestible  nutrient,  ration,  and  balanced  ration. 

4.  Describe  tlie  alimentary  canal  of  the  ox. 

5.  How  does  a  cow  chew  her  cud? 

6.  Define  enzymes  and  describe  the  action  of  saliva  on  starch. 

7.  Describe   digestion   in    (a)    the   mouth,    (b)    the   simple   stomach,    (c)    the 
stomach  of  ruminants,    (d)   the  small  intestine,    (e)   the  large  intestine. 

8.  What  special  provision  has  the  liorse  for  digesting  roughages? 
!).  Define  metabolism. 

10.  Describe  the  circulatory  canals  of  the  body. 

11.  Describe  the  digestion  and  absorption  of   (a)   fat,   (b)   of  carbohydrates,   (c) 
of   protein. 

12!  How  is  the  body  waste  disposed  of? 


CHAPTER  III 

MEASUEING  THE  USEFULNESS  OF  FEEDS 

I,     Digestibility  op  Feeds 

In  determining  the  relative  usefulness  of  different  feeding  stuffs  to 
the  animal,  it  is  necessary  to  find  a  means  of  measuring  the  amount  of 
nutrients  which  each  actually  furnishes.  The  most  simple  method  is 
to  determine  the  digestibility  of  the  various  nutrients ;  i.  e.,  the  per- 
centage of  the  total  crude  protein,  fiber,  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  fat 
in  the  feed  which  is  digested  by  the  animal.  The  digestible  matter  is 
obviously  the  only  portion  of  the  feed  which  is  of  use,  since  the 
remainder  passes  out  in  the  feces  without  ever  having  really  entered 
the  body. 

A  digestion  trial. — In  studying  the  digestibility  of  a  given  feed  the 
chemist  first  determines  by  analysis  the  percentage  of  each  nutrient  it 
contains.  The  animal  is  then  fed  the  feed  to  be  tested  for  a  pre- 
liminary period  of  a  few  days,  in  order  that  all  residues  of  former  feed 
may  pass  from  the  alimentary  canal.  Weighed  quantities  of  the  feed 
are  then  given  to  the  animal  and  the  feces  voided  during  a  stated 
period  are  collected  and  weighed,  and  samples  are  analyzed.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  amount  of  each  nutrient  fed  and  that  found  in 
the  feces  resulting  therefrom  represents  the  digested  portion. 

To  show  the  manner  in  which  the  digestibility  of  a  feed  is  deter- 
mined, let  us  suppose  that  during  a  10-day  trial  a  cow  was  fed  20  lbs.  of 
clover  hay  each  day,  containing  the  amounts  of  nutrients  shown  in  the 
table.  During  this  time  she  excreted,  on  the  average,  47.3  lbs.  of  feces, 
containing  the  amounts  of  undigested  dry  matter,  crude  protein,  fiber, 
nitrogen-free  extract,  and  fat  shown  in  the  table : 

Digestion  trial  with  coiv  fed  clover  hay;  average  for  1  day 


Fed  20  lbs.  hay,  containing 

Excreted  47.3   lbs.   feces,  containing 

Digested    

Per    ct.    digested    

_  _ 


Crude 
protein 

Carboh 

ydrates 

matter 

Fiber 

N-free 
extract 

Fat 

Lbs. 

17.4 

7.1 

Lbs. 
2.6 
1.1 

Lbs. 
.5.1 
2.4 

Lbs. 

7.7 
2.6 

Lbs. 
0.62 
0.28 

10..3 
.59.2 

1  .5 

57.7 

2.7 
52.9 

5.1 
66.2 

0.34 

54.8 

MEASURING  THE  USEFULNESS  OF  FEEDS 


35 


Subtracting  the  amounts  of  dry  matter  and  of  the  difiPerent  nutrients 
in  the  feces  from  the  amounts  in  the  feed,  we  find  the  amounts  digested. 
From  this  we  compute  the  percentage  of  each  which  is  digested.  For 
example,  there  was  17.4  lbs.  of  dry  matter  in  the  20  lbs.  of  hay  the  cow 
ate  each  day.  Of  this,  7.1  lbs.  was  excreted  in  the  feces,  leaving  10.3 
lbs.,  or  59.2  per  ct.,  as  the  part  digested. 

Some  feeds  cannot  be  fed  alone,  as  was  done  in  this  trial.  For 
instance,  horses  and  ruminants  are  not  fed  concentrates  alone  without 
hay  or  other  roughage.     Again,  while  pigs  may  be  fed  on  grain  only, 


Fig.  12. — A  Steer  in  a  Digestion  Stall 

In  digestion  trials  tlie  feces  may  be  collected  in  seA'eral  ways.  A  common  man- 
ner is  by  means  of  the  liarness  and  rubber  duct  here  shown.  When  it  is  merely 
desired  to  determine  the  digestibility  of  a  feed,  the  urine  need  not  be  collected. 
In  other  nutrition  studies  the  urine  must  be  collected,  as  is  being  done  in  this 
trial.      (From  Armsby,  Penn.  Sta.) 


such  feeds  as  tankage  and  linseed  meal  are  too  rich  in  protein  to  be 
so  fed.  The  digestibility  of  such  feeds  must,  therefore,  be  found  by 
difference,  instead  of  directly.  To  illustrate,  a  horse  is  first  fed  hay 
for  several  days  and  the  digestibility  of  the  hay  determined.  Oats 
may  then  be  added  to  the  ration,  and  the  total  amounts  of  nutrients 
digested  from  both  feeds  are  found,  just  as  in  the  preceding  method. 
The  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  coming  from  the  hay  is  then  sub- 
tracted from  the  total,  leaving  the  amount  assumed  to  be  digested  from 
the  oats. 


36  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Digestion  coefficients. — The  average  percentage  of  each  nutrient 
digested  in  a  feeding  stuff  is  termed  the  digestion  coefficient,  or 
coefficient  of  digcstihility,  for  that  nutrient  in  the  feed.  In  Appendix 
Table  II  are  given  the  digestion  coefficients  for  some  of  the  leading 
American  feeds,  selected  from  the  extensive  table  in  the  unabridged 
edition  of  ' '  Feeds  and  Feeding. ' '  This  table  shows  that  feeds  which 
contain  little  fiber,  such  as  corn  and  wheat,  are  highly  digestible, 
because  the  cell  walls  are  thin  and  easily  penetrated  by  the  digestive 
juices.  The  higher  the  fiber  content  of  feeds,  the  thicker  and  more 
resistant  are  the  cell  walls,  and  consequently  the  less  digestible  are  the 
feeds,  as  a  rule.  Thus,  oats  and  wheat  bran  are  less  digestible  than 
corn  or  wheat,  and  the  roughages,  such  as  hay  and  straw,  have  still 
lower  digestion  coefficients.  In  general,  the  nitrogen-free  extract  of 
feeds  is  slightly  more  digestible  than  the  crude  protein  or  fat,  and 
much  more  digestible  than  the  fiber.^ 

Digestible  nutrients  in  feeding  stuffs. — To  find  the  digestible 
nutrients  in  any  feeding  stuff  the  total  amount  of  each  nutrient  in 
100  lbs.  of  it  is  multiplied  by  the  digestion  coefficient  for  that  nutrient. 
For  example,  100  lbs.  of  dent  corn  contains  10.1  lbs.  of  crude  protein 
(See  Appendix  Table  I),  of  which  74  per  ct.  is  digestible,  as  shown  in 
Appendix  Table  II.  Accordingly,  there  are  10.1  X  0.74  or  7.5  lbs.  of 
digestible  protein  in  100  lbs.  of  dent  corn.  In  this  manner  the  authors 
have  computed  the  data  in  Appendix  Table  III,  which  show  the 
digestible  nutrients  in  the  important  American  feeding  stuffs.  (This 
table  is  condensed  from  the  exhaustive  and  complete  table  in  the 
unabridged  edition  of  "Feeds  and  Feeding.")  For  purposes  of  illus- 
tration, the  following  examples  are  presented  on  the  next  page. 

In  Appendix  Tables  I  and  II  the  fiber  and  nitrogen-free  extract  are 
given  in  separate  columns,  for,  tho  of  the  same  chemical  composition, 
these  components  often  differ  widely  in  digestibility.  In  preparing 
tables  of  digestible  nutrients,  the  digestible  fiber  and  digestible  nitro- 
gen-free extract  are  determined  separately  and  the  results  combined 

1  In  digestion  trials  it  is  commonly  assumed  tliat  all  matter  appearing  in  tlie 
feces  represents  the  part  of  the  food  which  is  actually  indigestible.  This  is  only 
approximately  correct,  for  the  feces  always  contain  some  waste  from  the  body 
itself,  such  as  bile  residues,  matter  coming  from  the  walls  of  the  alimentary 
canal,  and  unabsorbed  digestive  juices.  Also,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  thru  the  action  of  bacteria  in  tlie  paunch  and  large  intestine,  some  of 
the  nutrients,  especially  the  fiber,  are  broken  down  into  gas,  which  has  no  nutri- 
tive value.  Yet  this  is  usually  included  in  the  amount  considered  to  be  diges- 
tible. Furthermore,  in  digestion  studies  the  ether  extract,  or  so-called  fat,  is 
extracted  by  ether,  which  dissolves  not  only  the  true  fat,  bvit  also  the  chloro- 
phyll, wax,  bile  residues,  and  other  substances  which  are  not  true  fat.  Due  to 
this,  and  because  the  fats  in  feeding  stuffs  are  usually  in  relatively  small  amount, 
errors  are  liable  to  occur  in  finding  their  digestibility. 


MEASURING  THE  USEFULNESS  OF  FEEDS 


37 


Digestible  nutrients  in  100  lbs.  of  typical  feeding  stuffs,  from  Appendix 
Table  III 


Feeding  stuff 


Concentrates — 

Dent  corn    

Oats     

Wheat     

Wheat  bran    

Linseed  meal,  old  process 

Roughages — 

Timothy   hay    

Red  clover   hay    

Oat  straw    

Kentucky    bluegrass, 

green     

Corn  silage   

IMangels     


Total 

dry 

matter 

Lbs. 

Digestible  nutrients 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Total 
(inc.  fat 
X2.25) 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

S9.5 

7.5 

67.8 

4.6 

85.7 

90.8 

9.7 

52.1 

3.8 

70.4 

89.8 

9.2 

67.5 

1.5 

80.1 

89.9 

12.5 

41.6 

3.0 

60.9 

90.9 

30.2 

32.6 

6.7 

77.9 

88.4 

3.0 

42.8 

1.2 

48.5 

87.1 

7.0 

39.3 

1.8 

51.0 

88.5 

1.0 

42.6 

0.9 

45.6 

31.6 

2.3 

14.8 

0.6 

18.5 

2G.3 

1.1 

15.0 

0.7 

17.7 

9.4 

1.0 

6.1 

0.1 

7.3 

1:10.4 
1:  6.3 
1:  7.7 
1:  3.9 
1:    1.6 


1:15.2 
1:  5.7 
1:44.6 

1:  7.0 
1:15.1 
1:   6.3 


under  the  term  carbohydrates,  as  is  done  in  this  table.  The  digestible 
carbohydrates  in  dent  corn  are  computed  as  follows:  According  to 
Appendix  Table  I,  100  lbs.  of  dent  corn  contains  2.0  lbs.  of  fiber,  57 
per  ct.  of  which  is  digestible,  as  shown  in  Appendix  Table  II.  Like- 
wise there  are  70.9  lbs.  of  nitrogen-free  extract,  94  per  ct.  of  which  is 
digestible.  Multiplying  in  each  case  and  adding  the  products,  we  have 
67.8  lbs.,  the  amount  of  digestible  carbohydrates  in  100  lbs.  of 
corn. 

To  show  the  entire  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  in  100  lbs.  of  each 
feed,  the  fifth  column  gives  the  sum  of  the  digestible  crude  protein  and 
carbohydrates,  plus  the  fat  multiplied  by  2.25,  because  fat  will  produce 
2.25  times  as  much  heat  in  the  body  as  carbohydrates  or  protein. 

The  table  shows  the  wide  differences  in  the  amounts  of  digestible 
nutrients  these  typical  feeds  furnish.  Corn  and  wheat  are  high  in 
digestible  carbohydrates  and  rather  low  in  digestible  protein,  while 
wheat  bran  and  linseed  meal  are  high  in  digestible  protein  but  low  in 
digestible  carbohydrates.  The  roughages  range  lower  in  digestible 
nutrients  than  the  concentrates.  Oat  straw  is  especially  low  in  digest- 
ible protein,  ^while  immature  and  actively  growing  pasture  grass  will 
contain  nearly  as  much  digestible  protein  as  wheat  bran,  if  cut  and 
dried  to  the  same  water  content. 

Nutritive  ratio. — As  protein  serves  special  uses  in  the  body,  in  dis- 
cussions of  feeding  stuffs  and  rations  the  term  nutritive  ratio  is  used  to 


38  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

show  the  proportion  of  digestible  protein  they  contain.  By  nutritive 
ratio  is  meant  the  ratio  which  exists  in  any  given  feeding  stuff  between 
the  digestible  crude  protein  and  the  combined  digestible  carbohydrates 
and  fat.  It  is  determined  in  the  following  manner:  The  digestible 
fat  in  100  lbs.  of  the  given  feed  is  multiplied  by  2.25,  because  fat  will 
produce  2.25  times  as  much  heat  on  being  burned  in  the  body  as  do  the 
carbohydrates.  The  product  is  then  added  to  the  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates and  the  sum  is  divided  by  the  amount  of  digestible  crude 
protein,  the  quotient  being  the  second  term  of  the  ratio.  The  manner 
of  computing  the  nutritive  ratio  of  dent  corn  is  as  follows : 

Second  terra  of 
Diges  fat  Heat  equiv.  Diges.  carbohv.  nutritive  ratio 

(4.0  X  2.25)  +  r.7.8  _  ^^  ^ 

7.5 
Diges.  crude  protein 

Nutritive  ratios  are  expressed  with  the  colon,  thus,  1 :10.4.  The 
nutritive  ratio  of  dent  corn  is  therefore  1:10.4  (read  1  to  10.4)  ;  i.  e., 
for  each  pound  of  digestible  crude  protein  in  corn  there  are  10.4  lbs.  of 
digestible  carbohydrates  or  fat  equivalent.  A  feed  or  ration  having 
much  crude  protein  in  proportion  to  carbohydrates  and  fat  combined  is 
said  to  have  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio;  if  the  reverse,  it  has  a  wide  nutri- 
tive ratio.  Oat  straw  has  the  extremely  wide  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :44.6, 
because  of  its  low  content  of  digestible  protein  compared  with  the 
carbohydrates  and  fat ;  oats  the  medium  one  of  1 :6.3 ;  and  protein-rich 
linseed  meal  the  very  narrow  ratio  of  1 :1.6,  the  carbohydrates  being 
less  than  twice  the  crude  protein. 

When  the  total  digestible  nutrients  (including  fat  X  2.25)  in  a  feed 
or  ration  are  given,  as  in  Appendix  Table  III  and  the  preceding  table, 
the  nutritive  ratio  may  be  computed  by  simply  subtracting  the  diges- 
tible crude  protein  from  the  total  digestible  nutrients,  and  dividing 
the  remainder^by  the  digestible  crude  protein.  For  example,  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  dent  corn  is  found  thus :  (85.7  —  7.5)  ^-  7.5  =  10.4, 
second  term  of  nutritive  ratio. 

The  term  carbonaceous  feed  is  a  convenient  designation  for  a  feed- 
ing stuff  having  a  wide  nutritive  ratio.  Similarly,  the  term  nitro- 
genous feed  designates  a  feeding  stuff  having  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio. 

II.    The  Energy  of  Food 

Tables  of  digestible  nutrients  tell  what  part  of  the  food  may  be 
digested  and  absorbed,  and  thus  really  enter  the  body  of  the  animal, 
but  they  throw  no  light  on  the  use  made  of  the  nutrients  when  once 
they  are  within  the  body.  To  obtain  such  information  the  respira- 
tion apparatus  and  the  respiration  calorimeter  have  been  devised. 


MEASURING  THE  USEFULNESS  OF  FEEDS 


39 


The  respiration  apparatus. — This  is  an  air-tight  chamber,  ar- 
ranged with  such  devices  that  all  that  enters  and  comes  from  the  body 
of  the  animal  placed  within  it  can  be  accurately  measured  and  studied. 
In  some  cases  mechanical  work  is  performed,  while  in  others  the 
animaj  is  at  rest.  Everything  which  passes  into  the  animal — air,  food, 
and  water — is  carefully  measured  and  analyzed  so  that  the  exact  in- 
take of  the  body  is  known.     The  air  is  in  turn  drawn  from  the  cham- 


FiG.  13. 


-The  Respiration  Calorimeter  at  the  Pennsylvania 
Station 


Calorimeter  chamber  in  tlie  corner  of  the  room  at  the  left.  Thru  tlie  use  of 
this  apparatus  much  light  has  been  thrown  on  the  value  of  different  classes  of 
feeds  for  farm  animals.     (From  Armsby,  Pennsylvania  Station.) 


ber  and  analyzed,  and  the  feces  and  urine  passed  by  the  animal  are 
likewise  weighed  and  analyzed.  If  the  intake  is  larger  than  the  outgo, 
the  animal  has  increased  in  body  substance ;  if  less,  it  has  lost.  For 
example,  if  the  feed  given  a  steer  during  24  hours  contains  0.75  lb.  of 
nitrogen  and  the  feces  and  urine  voided  during  the  same  day  cpntain 
0.64  lb.,  the  steer  has  stored  0.11  lb.  of  nitrogen  in  its  body  during  the 
day  in  the  form  of  protein  tissue.     Similarly,  if  the  feed  contains 


40  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

13  lbs.  of  carbon  and  the  steer  voids  12.25  lbs.  during  the  day  in  the 
feces  and  urine,  and  in  the  carbon  dioxid  in  the  air  breathed  out  of 
the  lungs,  then  0.75  lb.  of  carbon  must  have  been  stored  in  his  body. 
Some  of  this  will  be  in  the  protein  tissues  built  during  the  day,  while 
the  remainder  will  have  been  stored  as  fat.  Thru  such  trials  scientists 
have  been  able,  in  some  measure,  to  tell  what  becomes  of  the  food 
animals  consume. 

The  respiration  calorimeter. — A  still  more  accurate  means  of 
measuring  the  usefulness  of  feeds  is  furnished  by  the  respiration 
calorimeter.  This  is  an  improved  and  exceedingly  complicated  form 
of  the  respiration  apparatus,  in  which  not  only  the  feces,  urine,  and 
gaseous  waste  products  can  be  collected,  but  in  which  the  heat  given 
off  by  the  animal  can  also  be  accurately  measured.  By  means  of 
this  apparatus,  it  is  possible  to  find  exactly  how  much  of  the  energy 
or  fuel  value  of  the  feed  the  animal  has  been  able  to  use  in  growth, 
fattening,  or  work.  The  first  and  only  respiration  calorimeter  built 
in  this  country  for  carrying  on  experiments  with  large  animals 
was  erected  by  Armsby  at  the  Pennsylvania  Station  some  years 
ago. 

Fuel  value  of  feeds. — A  mature  animal  may  be  compared  to  a 
steam  engine,  in  which  a  part  of  the  power  derived  from  the  fuel  is 
used  for  the  operation  of  the  engine  itself,  while  the  surplus  may 
perform  useful  work.  The  steam  engine  derives  its  energy  from  coal 
or  wood ;  the  animal,  from  the  feed  it  consumes.  Both  re(iuire  a 
small  amount  of  repair  material — steel,  brass,  etc.,  for  the  engine,  and 
protein  and  mineral  matter  for  the  animal — but  the  largest  demand 
with  engine  and  mature  animal  alike  is  for  fuel.  It  is  therefore  both 
important  and  interesting  to  consider  the  relative  value  of  feeds  in 
terms  of  the  fuel  they  can  furnish  the  body. 

The  value  of  any  feeding  stuff  as  fuel  for  the  animal  depends  on 
the  amount  of  energy  which  it  will  furnish  when  burned.  As  with 
coal,  the  fuel  value  of  a  feed  is  determined  by  burning  a  weighed 
quantity  of  it  in  pure  oxygen  gas  under  pressure  in  an  apparatus 
called  a  calorimeter.  The  heat  given  off  is  taken  up  by  water 
surrounding  the  burning  chamber  and  is  measured  with  a  ther- 
mometer, the  units  of  measure  employed  being  the  Calorie  and  the 
therm. 

A  Calorie  (C.)  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  tem- 
perature of  1  kilogram  of  water  1°  C,  or  1  lb.  of  water  nearly  4°  F. 
A  therm  (T.)  is  1,000  Calories. 

The  fuel  value  of  100  lbs.  of  various  substances,  or  the  heat  evolved 
on  burning  them,  is  as  follows: 


MEASURING  THE  USEFULNESS  OF  FEEDS  41 

Therms 
Anthracite   coal    358.3 

Timothy  hay,  containing  15  per  ct.  moisture   175.1 

Oat  straw,  containing  15  per  ct.  moisture 171.0 

Corn  meal,  containing  15  per  ct.  moisture 170.9 

Linseed  meal,  containing  15  per  ct.  moisture   196.7 

Pure  digestible  protein   263.1 

Pure  digestible  carbohydrates   186.0 

Pure  digestible  fat 422.0 

The  table  shows  that,  on  burning,  100  lbs.  of  anthracite  coal  yields 
358.3  therms,  or  enough  heat  to  raise  the  temperature  of  358,300  lbs.  of 
water  4°  F.  One  hundred  pounds  of  timothy  hay  likewise  burned 
yields  175.1  therms,  or  about  half  as  much  as  coal.  Linseed  meal 
has  a  higher  fuel  value  than  corn  meal  because  it  contains  more  oil. 
Digestible  protein  yields  considerably  more  heat  than  the  carbo- 
hydrates, and  fat  over  twice  as  much  as  the  carbohydrates. 

Available  energy. — The  fuel  value  of  any  feed  does  not  necessarily 
measure  its  nutritive  value  to  the  animal,  because  feeds  which  yield 
the  same  number  of  heat  units  in  the  calorimeter  may  vary  in  the 
amount  of  available  energy  which  they  can  furnish  to  the  body.  This 
is  because: 

1.  A  part  of  the  food  consumed  passes  thru  the  alimentary  tract 
undigested.  This  may  be  compared  to  bits  of  coal  dropping  thru  the 
grate  of  the  boiler  unburned. 

2.  The  carbohydrates,  especially  woody  fiber,  undergo  fermenta- 
tions in  the  intestines  and  paunch,  combustible  gases,  especially 
methane  or  marsh  gas,  being  formed,  which  are  without  fuel  value  to 
the  animal.  Even  in  well-constructed  engines  a  similar  loss  of  energy 
occurs  in  the  combustible  gases  which  escape  thru  the  chimney  with- 
out being  burned. 

3.  When  the  protein  substances  in  the  body  are  broken  down  they 
form  urea,  a  nitrogenous  compound  which  is  excreted  by  the  kidneys. 
Urea  has  fuel  value  which  is  lost  to  the  body.  Again  we  may  liken 
this  loss  to  that  which  occurs  in  the  boiler  thru  the  creosote  which, 
tho  having  fuel  value,  is  not  burned  in  the  fire  box  but  escapes  or  is 
deposited  in  the  chimney. 

The  fuel  value  of  an}''  food  which  remains  after  deducting  these 
three  losses  represents  the  available  energy  of  the  food.  This  is  the 
portion  which  the  animal  can  use  for  body  purposes. 

Net  energ-y. — The  available  energy  of  the  food  measures  its  value 
for  heat  production  in  the  animal,  but  does  not  represent  its  true 
value  for  other  purposes.  The  animal  must  spend  a  part  of  the  total 
available  energy  of  any  food  in  the  work  of  masticating  and  digest- 


42 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


ing  it  and  assimilating  the  digested  nutrients.  The  energy  so 
expended  finally  takes  the  form  of  heat,  but  is  wasted  so  far  as  other 
uses  are  concerned.  That  portion  of  the  energy  which  remains  after 
masticating,  digesting,  and  assimilating  the  food  is  termed  the  net 
energy  of  the  food.  This  net  energy  is  used  by  the  animal,  first  of 
all,  in  the  work  of  the  heart,  lungs,  and  other  internal  organs,  and  in 
ease  a  surplus  of  net  energy  then  remains,  such  surplus  may  be  used 
for  producing  growth,  fat,  milk,  or  wool,  or  in  the  performance  of 
external  work. 

The  losses  of  energy  due  to  mastication,  digestion,  and  assimilation 
may  be  compared  to  the  losses  which  would  occur  if  a  gasoline  engine 
had  to  distil  its  own  gasoline  from  crude  petroleum  and  then  get  rid  of 
the  impurities  which  it  could  not  use. 

Net  energy  of  feeding  stuffs. — Our  knowledge  of  the  net  energy 
value  of  diiterent  feeds  has  been  obtained  largely  thru  the  pains- 
taking experiments  conducted  by  Kellner  in  Germany  and  Armsby 
in  this  country.  The  following  table  sets  forth  some  of  their  findings 
with  reference  to  what  becomes  of  the  digestible  nutrients  and  three 
common  feeding  stuffs  when  fed  to  the  ox : 

Net  energy  from  100  lbs.  of  digestible  mitrients  and  common 
feeding  stuffs 


Total 
energy 

Energy  lost 

Nutrients  or 
feeding  stuffs 

In  feces 

In 
meth- 
ane 

gas 

In 
urine 

In  pro- 
duction 
proc- 
esses 

Total 
loss 

Net  en- 
ergy- re- 
maining 

Digestible  nutrients 

Peanut  oil    (fat)     

Wheat    gluten    (protein)  .  . 
Starch     (carbohydrate)     .  . 

Common  feeding  stuffs 

Corn    meal     

Timothy    hay     

Therms 

399.2 
263.1 
186.0 

170.9 
179.3 
171.4 

Therms 

0.0 
0.0 
0.0 

15.7 
87.7 
93.9 

Therms 

0.0 
0.0 
18.8 

15.9 

6.8 
15.5 

Therms 

0.0 

49.2 

0.0 

6.6 
5.5 
4.3 

Therms 

174.4 
118.3 
68.7 

62.0 
52.9 
47.4 

Therms 

174.4 

167.5 

87.5 

100.2 
152.9 
161.1 

Therms 

224.8 
95.6 

98.5 

70.7 
26.4 
10.3 

The  first  column  of  the  table  shows  the  total  amount  of  energy  which 
would  be  produced  on  burning  100  lbs.  of  the  digestible  nutrients  or 
of  typical  feeding  stuffs.  With  the  digestible  nutrients  no  further 
loss  occurs  in  the  feces,  but  all  are  absorbed  out  of  the  small  intestine 
and  go  into  the  body  proper.  The  oil  contained  no  nitrogen,  and  so 
no  nitrogenous  waste  from  it  appeared  in  the  urine,  nor  did  any  of  it 
form  methane  (marsh)  gas  in  the  intestines.  To  digest  and  assimilate 
this  100  lbs.  of  oil  required  174.4  therms  of  energy,  leaving  224.8 
therms  as  the  net  energy  value  for  growth,  fattening,  work,  or  miik 
production. 


MEASURING  THE  USEFULNESS  OF  FEEDS  43 

When  100  lbs.  or  263.1  therms  of  wheat  gluten,  which  is  principally 
protein,  was  digested  and  absorbed  into  the  body,  a  loss  of  49.2  therms 
occurred  in  the  urine,  this  loss  coming  from  the  breaking  down  of  this 
protein  nutrient  within  the  body,  or  from  the  breaking  down  of  body 
tissue  which  was  replaced  by  new  protein  from  this  source.  In  all, 
167.5  out  of  263.1  therms  in  100  lbs.  of  gluten  were  lost  either  in  the 
urine  or  in  carrying  on  the  work  of  mastication,  digestion,  and 
assimilation,  leaving  95.6  therms  which  might  be  temporarily  or 
permanently  stored  in  the  body.  This  amount  of  protein  was  avail- 
able for  building* protein  tissues  or  lean  meat,  which  would  be  its 
highest  use,  or  it  could  serve  for  the  production  of  body  fat,  etc. 

Studying  the  data  for  the  feeding  stuffs,  we  observe  that  100  lbs. 
of  corn  meal  contains  170.9  therms  of  total  energy.  Of  this,  15.7 
therms  is  lost  in  the  undigested  matter  of  the  feces.  In  the  methane 
gas  formed  in  the  fermentations  in  the  paunch  there  was  a  loss  of 
15.9  therms.  A  further  loss  of  6.6  therms  occurred  in  the  urine. 
Adding  these  losses  together  and  subtracting  the  sum  from  the  total 
energy  value,  170.9  therms,  we  find  that  132.7  therms  remained. 
This  is  the  amount  of  available  energy  in  100  lbs.  of  corn  meal. 
Further  los.ses  of  energy,  amounting  to  62.0  therms,  take  place  thru 
the  production  processes;  i.e.,  masticating  the  corn,  digesting  it  and 
assimilating  the  digested  nutrients.  This  brings  the  total  loss  to 
100.2  therms,  leaving  70.7  therms  as  the  net  energy  value  of  the 
100  lbs.  of  corn  meal.  The  same  weight  of  timothy  hay  furnishes 
but  26.4  therms  of  net  energy  and  of  wheat  straw  but  10.3  therms. 
About  one-half  of  the  total  fuel  value  of  these  feeds  passes  off  as 
undigested  matter,  never  having  been  inside  the  body  proper. 

Such  roughages  as  straw,  hay,  and  corn  stover,  because  of  their 
coarse,  woody  character  due  to  the  fiber  they  contain,  place  much 
work  on  the  animal  in  digesting  them  and  passing  the  waste  out  of 
the  body.  This  means  an  evolution  of  heat.  Therefore  where  the 
animal,  such  as  an  idle  horse  in  winter,  is  doing  no  work  and  needs 
little  net  energy,  no  harm  but  rather  economy  in  cost  of  keep  may 
result  from  living  on  such  roughages,  because  the  large  amount  of 
heat  necessarily  produced  in  the  digestion  and  assimilation  of  this 
food  helps  keep  the  animal  warm.  On  the  other  hand,  animals  at 
hard  work  and  those  producing  milk  or  being  fattened  cannot  profit- 
ably live  chiefly  on  coarse  forage  but  must  have  liberal  allowances  of 
concentrates,  such  as  corn  or  oats,  for  they  need  large  amounts  of  net 
energy  in  their  rations. 

Due  to  the  immense  amount  of  work  required  in  each  individual 
trial,  the  net  energy  values  have  as  yet  been  determined  for  only  a 
small  number  of  feeds.     Thus,  as  we  shall  see  in  Chapter  VIII,  our 


44  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

present  knowledge  of  the  net  energy  value  of  feeds  is  far  from  com- 
plete. However,  tho  many  of  the  values  are  not  exact  and  final,  they 
are  of  great  value  in  showing  approximately  what  portions  of  the 
food  consumed  by  animals  are  lost  at  each  step  in  its  progress  thru 
the  body,  and  what  part  is  finally  available  for  growth,  fattening, 
work,  or  milk  production.  The  marvel  is  that  scientists  have  been 
able  to  go  so  far  in  solving  these  most  complicated  problems. 

III.    Factors  Influencing  the  Nutritive  Value  of  Feeds 

Variations  in  composition  of  feeding  stuffs. — The  figures  given  in 
Appendix  Table  I  for  the  composition  of  any  feed  are  in  most 
instances  averages  of  all  analyses  of  normal  samples  of  that  feed 
which  have  been  reported  by  the  various  stations.  It  is  obviously 
important  to  learn  what  variations  from  these  averages  may  be 
expected  in  the  case  of  samples  of  a  given  feed  from  different  sections 
of  the  country,  grown  in  different  years,  or  when  gathered  at  different 
stages  of  maturity.  The  composition  of  a  crop  may  be  influenced  to 
a  limited  extent  by  the  amount  of  available  plant  food  in  the  soil  on 
which  the  crop  is  grown.  Climate  and  stage  of  maturity  are,  how- 
ever, the  most  important  factors  affecting  the  composition  of  a  given 
feed.  Of  the  cereals,  wheat  is  the  most  variable  in  composition,  its 
protein  content  being  profoundly  influenced  by  climate.  While  the 
average  crude  protein  content  of  wheat  from  the  northern  plains 
states  is  13.5  per  ct.,  wheat  from  the  Atlantic  states  contains  only  11.7 
per  ct.  and  that  from  the  Pacific  states  but  9.9  per  ct.  crude  protein. 
Climate  has  little  effect  on  the  chemical  composition  of  corn,  providing 
the  crop  matures. 

The  roughages  are  even  more  variable  in  composition  than  the 
cereals,  owing  to  the  fact  that,  besides  climate,  their  composition  is 
influenced  by  the  stage  of  maturity,  the  manner  of  curing,  and  the 
moisture  content.  Analyses  of  corn  fodder  and  corn  stover  show  a 
water  content  ranging  from  over  50  per  ct.  in  field-cured  material  in 
wet  seasons  down  to  10  per  ct.  or  less  in  arid  regions  or  where  cured 
under  cover  in  a  dry  season.  To  show  the  difference  in  nutritive 
value  of  these  extremes  it  may  be  stated  that  corn  fodder  or  stover 
containing  10  per  ct.  water  will  carry  80  per  ct.  more  nutrients  per 
100  lbs.  than  a  sample  of  the  same  forage  containing  50  per  ct.  water ! 
To  overcome  this  error  so  far  as  possible,  separate  averages  are  given 
for  very  dry  and  for  ordinary  field-cured  samples  of  these  feeds  in 
Appendix  Table  I. 

When  plants  are  immature  a  much  larger  percentage  of  the  dry 
matter  consists  of  protein  than  when  they  are  mature.  For  example, 
dried  alfalfa  from  plants  cut  when  three  inches  high  may  contain  over 


MEASURING  THE  USEFULNESS  OF  FEEDS  45 

30  per  ct.  crude  protein,  while  the  dry  hay  from  alfalfa  cut  when  in 
bloom  will  contain  only  half  as  much.  On  the  other  hand,  immature 
plants  are  more  watery,  and  thus  contain  less  total  digestible  nutrients. 

It  is  shown  in  later  chapters  that  as  the  grasses  and  legumes  mature 
their  content  of  fiber  materially  increases,  and  as  a  consequence  the 
feed  becomes  less  digestible  and  usually  of  lower  value.  However, 
the  large  accumulation  of  starch  which  occurs  in  the  corn  plant  as  it 
ripens  gives  the  more  mature  form  of  that  plant  a  greater  total  feed- 
ing value. 

Influence  of  preparation  of  feed. — It  is  often  assumed  that  by 
cutting,  grinding,  and  cooking  feed  much  labor  is  saved  the  animal, 
to  the  advantage  of  the  feeder.  This  idea  is  based  on  the  theory  that 
the  less  work  the  animal  does  in  mastication  and  digestion  the  larger 
the  net  production  of  work,  flesh,  or  milk.  On  the  contrary,  we 
know  that  the  muscles  of  the  body  do  not  grow  strong  thru  idleness, 
and  that  work  and  activity  are  necessary  to  bodily  health,  growth, 
and  strength.  Likewise,  the  organs  of  mastication  and  digestion 
should  be  kept  working  at  their  normal  capacity.  When  cutting, 
grinding,  cooking,  or  pulping  brings  more  satisfaction  to  fattening 
animals  soon  to  be  slaughtered,  and  causes  them  to  consume  heavier 
rations,  such  preparation  may  pay,  as  it  may  also  with  exceptionally 
hard-worked  animals  that  have  but  limited  time  for  taking  their 
rations.  Ordinarily,  making  feeds  fine  and  soft  so  they  may  be 
swallowed  with  little  chewing  not  only  fails  to  pay  for  the  cost  of 
such  preparation  but  may  actually  lower  the  value  of  the  feed.  The 
economy  of  the  different  methods  of  preparing  feed  for  each  class  of 
stock  is  discussed  in  detail  in  the  respective  chapters  of  Part  III, 
but  a  summary  of  these  conclusions  will  be  helpful  in  showing  the 
principles  which  should  govern  the  feeder  in  deciding  how  far  to 
employ  such  methods  of  preparation. 

Grinding-  or  crushing  grain. — Grinding,  crushing,  or  rolling  grain 
increases  the  digestibility  only  when  animals  fail  to  masticate  the 
whole  grain.  In  fact,  grinding  grain  so  finely  that  it  is  bolted  with 
little  chewing  may  sometimes  decrease  the  digestibility  because  of 
imperfect  mixture  with  the  saliva.  For  all  animals,  such  hard  grains 
as  bald  barley  or  rice  should  be  ground,  and  for  all  classes  of  animals, 
except  perhaps  sheep,  small  seeds,  such  as  millet,  grain  from  the 
sorghums,  or  weed  seeds,  should  ordinarily  be  ground.  For  animals 
with  poor  teeth  or  for  3'oung  animals  before  their  teeth  are  well 
developed,  grinding  grain  in  general  is  advisable.  Ordinarily,  horses 
can  grind  their  own  oats  and  corn,  and  idle  horses  should  always 
do  so.  For  horses  which  are  hard-worked  and  spend  much  of  their 
time  away  from  the  stable  the  grain  may  be  ground  and  mixed  with 


46  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

a  small  allowance  of  moistened  chaffed  hay.  A  cow  yielding  a  large 
flow  of  milk  is  a  hard-worked  animal,  and  her  grain  should  usually 
be  ground.  Where  pigs  follow  fattening  cattle  to  gather  up  any 
grain  which  escapes  mastication  and  digestion  there  is  no  advantage 
in  grinding  corn  or  even  shelling  it,  except  perhaps  toward  the  close 
of  the  feeding  period  when  the  cattle  may  be  induced  to  eat  more  by 
grinding.  Where  no  pigs  run  with  cattle,  it  is  usually  economical  to 
grind  or  crush  the  corn  before  feeding.  Except  in  the  case  of  small 
or  hard  seeds,  sheep  with  good  teeth  should  grind  their  own  grain. 
While  it  pays  to  grind  the  small  grains  for  pigs,  there  is  no  appreciable 
advantage  in  grinding  corn  for  pigs  weighing  150  lbs.  or  less.  For 
older  animals  such  preparation  may  sometimes  be  profitable. 

Cutting  or  chaffing  forage. — Passing  such  coarse  forages  as  corn 
or  the  sorghums  thru  a  feed  cutter  or  shredder  is  usually  profitable, 
not  because  the  portions  consumed  are  digested  more  completely  but 
because  the  animals  waste  less  of  the  feed  and  the  cut  forage  is  more 
convenient  to  handle.  Where  hay  is  palatable  and  consumed  with 
little  waste,  it  is  ordinarily  not  economical  to  cut  or  chaff  it  for  cattle 
or  sheep,  unless  it  is  desired  to  mix  the  good-quality  hay  with  other 
less  palatable  feed  so  that  the  whole  wall  be  consumed.  Such  prepara- 
tion will  often  pay  with  poor  roughage,  as  the  animals  will  then  con- 
sume it  with  less  waste.  In  establishments  where  many  horses  are  kept, 
the  hay  is  often  cut.  Not  only  is  less  wasted  then,  but  the  concen- 
trates may  be  mixed  with  a  part  of  the  cut  hay,  forcing  the  horses  to 
eat  them  more  slowly.  Roughage  should  not  be  cut  so  fine  that  the 
animals  will  swallow  it  without  chewing,  or,  in  the  case  of  ruminants, 
that  it  will  escape  rumination. 

Soaking  feed. — AVhen  grain  with  hard  or  small  kernels  can  not  be 
conveniently  ground  or  crushed,  it  should  be  softened  by  soaking 
before  feeding,  care  being  taken  that  the  meal  does  not  become  stale 
by  long  standing. 

Cooking  feed. — Only_60  years  ago  scientists  believed  that  cooking 
feed  greatly  increased  its  value  for  stock.  Numerous  careful  trials 
have  since  shown  that,  in  general,  cooking  either  grain  or  roughage 
does  not  increase  its  digestibility  or  nutritive  value,  and  may  even 
decrease  the  digestibility  of  the  protein.  While  cooking  feed  for 
cattle  w^as  abandoned  years  ago,  it  is  still  practiced  to  some  extent 
for  swine.  Fortunately,  this  question  has  also  been  settled  by  nu- 
merous tests  at  several  experiment  stations.  These  showed  conclu- 
sively that,  rather  than  there  being  a  gain,  there  was  in  most  eases  an 
actual  loss  from  cooking.  The  only  exceptions  are  a  few  feeds,  such 
as  potatoes  and  field  beans,  which  can  be  successfully  fed  to  pigs 
only  after  being  cooked.     When  such  small  and  hard  grains  as  wheat 


MEASURING  THE  USEFULNESS  OF  FEEDS  47 

and  rice  can  not  be  ground  they  should  be  cooked  or  soaked.  Musty 
hay  and  corn  fodder  are  made  more  palatable  and  safe  by  steaming. 
In  winter  it  is  often  advantageous  to  give  vi^arm  feed  to  pigs,  but  this  is 
entirely  different  from  cooking  the  feed. 

Curing  and  ensiling  forage. — If  green  forage  is  cured  without 
waste  and  in  a  manner  to  prevent  fermentation,  the  mere  drying  does 
not  lower  its  digestibility.  Ordinarily,  however,  in  curing  forage 
much  of  the  finer  and  more  nutritious  parts  is  wasted,  and  dews,  rain, 
and  fermentations  effect  changes  which  lower  digestibility.  The 
large  amount  of  work  done  in  masticating  dry  forage  and  passing  it 
thru  the  alimentary  tract  is  another  reason  why  green  forage  may 
give  better  results  and  hence  appear  more  digestible  than  dry  forage. 
The  long  storage  of  fodders,  even  under  favorable  conditions, 
decreases  both  their  digestibility  and  palatability. 

Ensiling  green  forage  tends  to  decrease  the  digestibility.  The 
exceedingly  favorable  results  from  silage  feeding  must  therefore  be 
due  to  the  palatability  of  the  silage,  its  beneficial  effect  on  the  health 
of  the  animals,  and  to  the  fact  that  less  feed  is  wasted  than  when 
dry  fodder  is  used. 

Influence  of  amount  of  feed  eaten  on  digestibility. — Animals  tend 
to  digest  their  food  somewhat  more  completely  when  given  a  main- 
tenance ration  than  when  on  full  feed.  This  may  be  due  to  the  more 
rapid  movement  of  the  food  thru  the  digestive  tract  or  to  a  less  com- 
plete absorption  of  the  digested  nutrients  when  present  in  large 
amount.  Under  normal  conditions,  in  feeding  farm  animals  for  the 
production  of  meat,  milk,  or  work,  other  economic  factors,  which  will 
be  treated  in  later  chapters,  more  than  offset  the  slightly  better  utili- 
zation of  feed  when  a  scant  ration  is  fed. 

Influence  of  proportion  of  the  different  nutrients. — The  addition 
of  a  large  quantity  of  easily  digested  carbohydrates,  such  as  sugar 
and  starch,  to  a  ration  containing  much  roughage  may  reduce  the 
digestibility  of  its  crude  protein,  fiber,  and  nitrogen-free  extract. 
Such  depression  of  digestibility  occurs  with  ruminants  when  less  than 
1  part  of  digestible  crude  protein  is  present  to  every  8  parts  of 
digestible  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  (carbohydrates  plus  fat  X  2.25). 
With  swine  the  nutritive  ratio  may  be  wider  before  the  digestibility  is 
affected.  An  explanation  offered  for  this  lessened  digestibility  is  that 
when  a  large  proportion  of  soluble  or  easily  digested  carbohydrates 
is  fed,  the  bacteria  in  the  digestive  tract  which  normally  decompose 
cellulose  to  secure  food  then  attack  instead  the  more  readily  available 
sugars  and  starch.  Not  only  is  the  digestibility  of  the  cellulose,  or 
fiber,  consequently  lowered,  but  also  that  of  the  crude  protein  and 
nitrogen-free  extract,  for  the  unattacked  cellulose  cell  walls  protect 


48  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

the  proteins  and  carbohydrates  contained  therein  from  the  action  of 
the  digestive  juices.  This  depression  does  not  occur  when  nitrog- 
enous feeds,  such  as  oil  meal,  are  added  along  with  the  starch  or 
sugar,  thus  preserving  the  balance  between  protein  and  non- 
nitrogenous  nutrients.  It  is  assumed  that  this  is  due  to  a  stimula- 
tion of  the  bacteria  by  the  addition  of  more  protein,  so  that,  invig- 
orated, they  attack  the  fiber  of  the  food  again. 

Adding  nitrogenous  feeds  to  roughages,  such  as  hay,  straw,  etc.,  does 
not  increase  the  digestibility  of  the  roughage.  Neither  does  the  addi- 
tion of  fat  to  a  ration  increase  the  digestibility  of  the  other  con- 
stituents. When  too  much  fat  is  fed  it  may  cause  digestive  disturb- 
ance. Salt  does  not  affect  digestion,  tho  it  may  cause  animals  to 
eat  more  food  and  may  improve  nutrition. 

Class  of  animal,  age,  breed,  and  miscellaneous  factors. — Cattle 
and  sheep  digest  concentrates  and  good  quality  roughage  equally 
well,  but  cattle  digest  poor  roughage,  such  as  straw,  somewhat  better 
than  sheep.  Horses  and  pigs  digest  fiber  less  completely  than  do  rumi- 
nants. While  there  is  little  difference  in  the  digestibility  of  con- 
centrates by  these  animals,  horses  cannot  digest  roughages  as  com- 
pletely as  do  cattle  or  sheep,  and  pigs  utilize  roughages  still  less 
effteiently. 

In  general,  age  does  not,  in  itself,  influence  digestibility,  tho  young 
farm  animals  cannot  utilize  much  roughage  until  their  digestive  tracts 
are  developed.  The  digestion  of  old  animals  is  often  indirectly 
injured  by  poor  teeth,  which  make  the  proper  mastication  of  their 
food  impossible.  Breed  has  no  influence  upon  digestibility.  Animals 
may,  however,  show  considerable  difference,  one  from  another,  in 
their  ability  to  digest  the  same  ration,  tho  ordinarily  the  digesti])ility 
of  a  given  ration  by  different  animals  of  the  same  race  will  not  vary 
more  than  3  to  4  per  ct. 

Neither  the  frequency  of  feeding,  the  time  of  watering,  nor  the 
amount  of  water  drunk  appears  to  influence  digestibility.  Moderate 
exercise  tends  to  increase  digestibility,  but  excessive  work  lowers  it. 

The  flow  of  saliva  and  the  other  digestive  juices  is  checked  by  fright. 
On  the  other  hand,  kind  treatment  and  palatability  of  food  should 
favorably  influence  digestion.  Under  skillful  care  animals  show 
remarkable  relish  for  their  food,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  conclude  that 
better  digestion  results. 

Summary. — The  preceding  discussions  make  it  evident  that  average 
figures  for  the  composition  of  any  feeding  stuff  are  but  approximately 
correct  when  applied  to  a  particular  lot  of  the  feed.  This  likewise 
applies  to  the  expression  of  its  nutritive  value,  whether  stated  in  terms 
of  digestible  nutrients  or  net  energy.     In  other  words,  different  lots 


MEASURING  THE  USEFULNESS  OF  FEEDS  49 

of  any  feeding  stuff  vary  in  feeding  value,  the  same  as  different 
samples  of  coal  vary  in  fuel  value.  Owing  to  the  expense  of  obtaining 
analyses  it  is  out  of  the  question  for  any  but  the  most  extensive  feeders 
to  have  their  particular  feeds  analyzed,  just  as  only  the  large  manu- 
facturer can  afford  to  have  samples  of  coal  analyzed  to  determine  their 
fuel  value  before  purchasing.  With  the  cereals  and  the  roughages 
the  general  feeder  must,  therefore,  rely  on  that  average  given  in  tables 
of  digestible  nutrients  or  net  energy  which  corresponds  most  closely 
in  his  judgment  to  the  feed  at  hand.  In  purchasing  commercial  con- 
centrates, sold  in  vast  quantities  everywhere,  it  is  now  fortunately 
possible  in  most  sections  of  the  country  to  secure  standard  brands, 
whose  composition  is  fully  guaranteed  by  the  manufacturer.  (Chap- 
ter XI.) 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  digestion  coefficients  and  liow  are  they  found  in  a  digestion  trial? 

2.  In  a  digestion  trial  a  steer  ate  in  one  day  25  lbs.  of  red  clover  hay  con- 
taining 86.4  per  ct.  dry  matter,  12.5  per  ct.  crude  protein,  25.2  per  ct.  fiber,  38.3 
per  ct.  nitrogen-free  e.vtract,  and  3.3  per  ct.  fat.  During  tlie  same  day  he  voided 
in  the  feces  8.9  lbs.  dry  matter,  1.3  lbs.  crude  protein,  2.9  ll)s.  fiber,  3.3  lbs.  nitro- 
gen-free extract,  and  0.4  lb.  fat.  Find  the  digestion  coefficients  for  dry  matter 
and  the  various  nutrients. 

3.  Define  nutritive  ratio  and  show  how  it  is  calculated. 

4.  Describe  a  respiration  apparatus. 

5.  Define  available  energy  and  net  energy. 

6.  Thru  what  diflTerent  means  is  energy  lost  when  a  cow  eats  corn  meal? 

7.  Why  may  considerable  straw  be  fed  advantageously  to  an  idle  horse  but  not 
to  one  at  hard  work? 

8.  What  factors  influence  the  composition  of  feeds? 

9.  Discuss  the  value  for  stock  of  (a)  grinding  grain,  (b)  cutting  hay,  (c) 
soaking  feed,    (d)   cooking  feed. 

10.  How  is  the  value  of  forage  aflFected  by  curing;  by  ensiling? 

11.  What  factors  affect  the  digestibility  of  feeds? 


CHAPTER  IV 

MAINTAINING  FARM  ANIMALS 

I.     Requirements  for  Body  Fuel 

Farm  animals  are  given  food  in  order  that  they  may  convert  it 
into  useful  products,  like  meat,  milk,  wool,  and  work.  Just  as  a 
factory  must  be  supplied  with  power  to  keep  the  machinery  in  motion 
before  any  product  can  be  turned  out,  to  make  continued  production 
possible  with  the  animal  enough  food  must  first  be  provided  to  main- 
tain all  necessary  life  processes.  This  amount  of  food,  which  is 
required  merely  to  support  the  animal  when  doing  no  work  and  yield- 
ing no  material  product,  is  called  the  maintenance  ration.  When  an 
animal  is  receiving  a  maintenance  ration  its  body  will  neither  gain 
nor  lose  protein,  fat,  or  mineral  matter. 

On  the  average,  fully  one-half  of  the  feed  consumed  by  farm  ani- 
mals is  used  simply  for  maintenance,  only  the  remaining  half  being 
turned  into  useful  products.  Thus,  it  is  just  as  important  to  under- 
stand the  principles  governing  the  maintenance  requirements  of  farm 
animals  as  those  controlling  the  production  of  meat,  milk,  or  work. 

To  maintain  an  animal  at  rest  without  losing  or  gaining  in  weight, 
sufificient  food  must  be  supplied  to  furnish:  (1)  Fuel  to  maintain 
the  body  temperature;  (2)  energy  to  carry  on  such  vital  functions  as 
the  work  of  the  heart,  lungs,  etc.;  (3)  protein  to  repair  the  small 
daily  waste  of  nitrogenous  tissues;  (4)  mineral  matter  to  replace  the 
small  but  continuous  loss  of  these  materials. 

Maintaining  the  body  temperature. — The  body  temperature  of  the 
larger  farm  animals  ranges  from  98.4°  to  105.8°  F.  To  keep  the 
body  at  these  high  temperatures,  heat  must  be  continuously  produced 
within  it.  We  have  seen  that,  especially  with  ruminants,  much  heat 
is  generated  in  the  digestive  tract  by  the  breaking  down  of  cellulose 
and  other  plant  compounds.  The  remainder  is  produced  in  the  tissues 
of  the  body  in  the  following  manner:  Thru  breathing,  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  is  brought  to  the  blood.  Floating  in  the  blood  stream,  are 
myriads  of  microscopic  bodies  called  red  blood  corpuscles,  which  owe 
their  color  to  hemoglobin,  an  iron-containing  protein.  This  hemo- 
globin absorbs  the  oxygen  and  holds  it  loosely.  As  the  blood,  now 
laden  with  oxygen,  passes  thru  the  capillary  system,  it  gives  up  the 
oxygen  to  the  living  body  cells.     Here,  in  some  marvellous  manner 

50 


MAINTAINING  FAKM  ANIMALS  51 

some  of  the  body  nutrients  are  oxidized,  or  slowly  burned,  with  the 
result  that  heat  is  formed.  Unlike  the  burning  of  fuel  in  a  stove, 
the  oxidations  in  the  body  take  place  at  a  comparatively  low  tem- 
perature. As  a  result  of  these  oxidations,  where  there  were  before 
glucose,  fats,  and  proteins  in  the  tissues,  there  now  remain  carbonic 
acid  gas,  water,  and  urea.  The  latter  is  the  form  in  which  the  nitrog- 
enous waste  of  the  body,  resulting  from  the  breaking  down  of  protein, 
is  chiefly  excreted. 

As  shown  in  the  preceding  chapter,  all  the  energy  used  up  in  the 
various  forms  of  internal  work  of  the  body  is  finally  changed  to  heat. 
The  this  energy  is  lost  so  far  as  useful  production  is  concerned,  the 
heat  formed  helps  to  maintain  the  body  temperature.  The  amount  of 
heat  so  produced  is  considerable.  Even  with  such  an  easily  digested 
feed  as  corn,  over  one-third  of  the  total  energy  which  the  digestible 
nutrients  furnish  is  converted  into  heat  in  the  work  of  masticating, 
digesting,  and  utilizing  it.  With  roughages  like  hay  and  straw  the 
proportion  is  much  larger.  However,  in  the  case  of  animals  exercis- 
ing normally  the  larger  part  of  the  body  heat  is  produced  in  the 
muscular  tissues,  since  all  muscular  contraction  is  caused  by  the  oxida- 
tion, or  burning,  of  nutrients  in  the  muscles.  Even  when  the 
muscles  are  not  actively  contracting,  some  heat  is  being  generated  in 
them. 

Heat  regulation. — Not  only  must  heat  be  continuously  produced  in 
the  body,  but  the  temperature  must  be  kept  constant  under  varying 
external  conditions  and  with  supplies  of  food  differing  from  day  to 
day  in  amount  and  heat  producing  power.  This  is  done  by  the 
unconscious  regulation  of  both  the  production  and  the  loss  of  heat. 
The  production  of  heat  is  governed  by  decreasing  or  increasing  the 
oxidations  going  on  in  the  body  tissues.  On  cold  days,  for  example, 
we  are  inclined  to  eat  more  heartily  and  walk  more  briskly  than  in 
warm  weather.  When  chilled,  there  is  also  an  involuntary  rise  in 
heat  production,  brought  about  thru  a  "shivering"  of  the  muscles. 
The  loss  of  heat  from  the  body  is  regulated  in  part  by  varying  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  near  the  surface  of  the  body.  When  the 
temperature  of  the  body  is  too  high,  more  blood  is  pumped  to  the 
surface,  where  some  of  the  heat  passes  off  into  the  air.  The  produc- 
tion of  sweat  and  the  giving  off  of  water  vapor  from  the  lungs  are 
also  important  means  of  governing  the  loss  of  heat.  In  addition,  the 
clothing  of  man  and  the  thick  skin,  hair,  wool,  and  feathers  of  animals 
prevent  too  rapid  loss  of  heat. 

Heat  and  energy  required  for  maintenance. — In  maintaining  a 
mature  animal  at  rest  a  certain  amount  of  net  energy  must  be  fur- 
nished by  the  feed  to  carry  on  the  internal  work  of  the  body.     How- 


52 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


ever,  the  greater  part  of  the  food  is  required  merely  as  fuel  to  keep  up 
the  body  temperature.  Hence,  except  for  the  pig,  maintenance  rations 
for  the  larger  farm  animals  may  consist  largely  of  cheap  roughages, 
such  as  hay  and  straw,  which  furnish  abundant  heat  but  do  not  yield 
much  net  energy.  This  has  great  practical  importance,  for  it  shoAvs 
M^hy  idle  horses  and  stock  cattle  can  be  carried  thru  the  winter  on 
roughage  alone,  without  grain. 

It  is  commonly  assumed  in  computing  rations  that  the  amount  of 
feed  required  to  maintain  an  animal  depends  on  its  body  weight. 


Fig.  14. — Heavily-fed  Animals  Ordinarily  Have  an  Excess  of  Heat 

Heavily-fed  fattening  steers  thrive  best  with  .no  shelter  except  an  open  shed, 
but  animals  being  carried  thru  the  winter  on  scanty  rations  need  warmer  quar- 
ters.    (From  Prairie  Farmer.) 


Strictly  speaking,  however,  the  maintenance  requirement  depends  not 
on  the  live  weight,  but  on  the  body  surface.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  loss  of  heat  from  the  body  is  proportional  to  the  body  sur- 
face and  not  to  its  weight.  A  1,600-lb.  steer  does  not  have  twice  the 
body  surface  of"  an  800-lb.  one,  and  hence  will  not  require  twice  as 
much  feed  for  maintenance.  Individual  animals  of  the  same  kind 
and  size  may  also  differ  somewhat  in  their  requirements.  For 
example,  a  quiet  animal  uses  up  less  body  fuel  than  a  nervous,  active 
one.    Due  chiefly  to  increased  muscular  action,  an  animal  when  stand- 


MAINTAINING  FARM  ANIMALS  53 

ing'  may  produce  30  per  ct.  more  heat  than  when  lying  down. 
Exposure  to  cold  winds,  especially  with  animals  having  scanty  coats, 
increases  the  need  for  body  fuel.  Animals  with  coats  wet  by  rain  or 
snow  lose  still  more  heat  from  their  bodies,  for  the  cold  water  must  be 
warmed  and  evaporated  by  heat  produced  thru  the  burning  of  food  in 
the  body.  With  heavily-fed  fattening  animals  this  may  not  cause 
any  waste  of  food  nutrients,  for  much  more  heat  is  being  produced  in 
the  mastication,  digestion,  and  assimilation  of  their  heavy  rations 
than  is  ordinarily  needed  to  warm  the  body.  On  the  other  hand, 
animals  being  carried  thru  the  winter  on  scanty  rations  have  no  siich 
excess  of  heat,  and  hence  much  feed  may  often  be  saved  by  protecting 
them  from  cold  winds  and  storms. 

II.    Requirements  for  Protein 

Protein  required  for  maintenance. — The  demands  of  the  body  for 
fuel  and  energy  can  be  met  thru  feeding  carbohydrates  and  fat. 
However,  an  abundant  supply  of  these  nutrients  alone  will  not  pre- 
vent starvation,  for  there  must  also  be  a  supply  of  protein  to  replace 
that  lost  each  day  from  the  body ;  that  is,  to  repair  the  protein  tissues. 
In  view  of  the  high  cost  and  relatiye  scarcity  of  protein  in  feeding 
stuflt's,  it  is  important  to  know  the  smallest  amount  of  this  nutrient 
which  will  maintain  animals  in  good  health.  When  plenty  of  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat  were  supplied  to  serve  as  body  fuel,  animals  have 
been  maintained  for  long  periods  on  surprisingly  small  amounts  of 
protein.  For  example,  at  the  Pennsylvania  Station  ^  Armsby  main- 
tained steers  on  only  0.4  to  0.6  lb.  of  digestible  protein  daily  per 
1,000  lbs.  live  weight  without  harm.  It  is  not  well,  however,  to 
supply  only  the  theoretical  minimum  of  protein  to  animals  for  long 
periods.  Some  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  difference  in  com- 
position of  feeding  stuffs  and  the  varying  abilities  of  animals  to 
digest  the  same  feeds.  We  should  further  remember  that  the  various 
proteins  differ  in  composition  and  that  some  are  so  unbalanced  as  to 
have  but  low  value  for  repairing  body  tissues.  In  numerous  experi- 
ments animals  have  never  been  successfully  maintained  on  gelatin,  a 
protein  which  lacks  two  amino  acids  and  contains  only  small  amounts 
of  others.  Besides  supplying  protein  to  replace  the  daily  waste  from 
the  tissues  and  organs  of  the  body,  there  should  be  provision  for  the 
growth  of  the  hair,  hoofs,  and  wool — all  of  a  protein  nature.  In  gen- 
eral, protein  is  a  cell  stimulant  and  a  supply  somewhat  above  the 
minimum  promotes  the  health  of  the  animal. 

The  wisdom  of  not  limiting  the  protein  supply  to  the  theoretical 
minimum  for  long  periods  has   been   shown   by  the   experience   of 

1  Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition,  1903,  p.  142. 


54  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Haecker  of  the  Minnesota  Station.^  He  found  that  dairy  cows  under 
good  care  and  otherwise  liberal  feeding  continued  a  good  flow  of  milk 
for  long  periods  on  a  verj^  small  allowance  of  crude  protein.  After 
some  years  of  such  feeding,  however,  the  vitality  of  these  cows  was  so 
undermined  that  they  became  physical  wrecks  long  before  their  time. 
Even  when  sufficient  protein  is  fed  to  insure  good  health,  the  amount 
required  to  maintain  mature  resting  animals  is  not  large  compared 
with  the  need  for  carbohydrates  and  fat  for  bt)dy  fuel.  The  main- 
tenance rations  for  such  animals  may  therefore  have  a  relatively  wide 
nutritive  ratio.  For  example,  rations  for  maintaining  full-grown 
steers  may  have  as  wide  a  nutritive  ratio  as  1 :10  or  even  1 :16  and 
for  horses  as  wide  as  1:8  or  1:9.     (See  Appendix  Table  V.) 

AVhen  more  protein  is  fed  than  is  needed  to  repair  the  tissues  of  the 
body,  the  nitrogen  is  split  off  the  excess  portion  and  excreted  in  the 
urine.  The  non-nitrogenous  part  wdiich  remains  is  not  wasted,  but 
may  be  used  for  hody  fuel  just  as  are  carbohydrates  and  fat,  or  it  may 
be  changed  into  glucose  and  possibly  finally  stored  as  fat  in  the 
body. 

Can  amids  replace  protein? — Whether  the  group  of  nitrogenous 
compounds,  more  simple  than  the  proteins,  which  are  included  under 
the  term  amids  (see  Page  10),  can  serve  the  same  purpose  in  the 
body  as  the  true  proteins,  is  still  a  disputed  question.  Numerous 
trials  have  shown  that  animals  cannot  live  on  a  single  amid  as  the 
sole  source  of  nitrogen.  However,  it  is  reasonable  to  believe  that 
when  a  mixture  of  amids  in  a  feeding  stuff  contains  all  the  different 
amino  acids  (the  protein  building-stones)  needed  to  form  body  pro- 
tein, these  amids  can  then  be  used  in  the  same  manner  as  true  protein 
for  the  repair  of  body  tissues  and  for  the  formation  of  new  protein 
tissue.  This  belief  is  upheld  by  the  following:  Nearly  half  the 
nitrogen  in  corn  silage  and  only  about  15  per  et.  of  that  in  dried  corn 
forage  is  in  amid  form.  Yet,  based  on  the  dry  matter  content,  corn 
silage  is  somewhat  more  valuable  than  dry  corn  forage  as  a  feed  for 
dairy  cows,  which  require  a  liberal  supply  of  crude  protein.  Like- 
wise, the  amids  are  abundant  in  grass,  roots,  and  silage,  which  are 
especially  useful  for  growing  and  pregnant  animals  and  for  those 
producing  milk  or  wool — all  of  which  are  in  particular  need  of  abun- 
dant protein. 

III.    Requirements  for  Mineral  ]\Iatter 

Importance  of  mineral  matter. — The  necessity  for  an  ample  supply 
of  mineral  matter  is  shown  by  feeding  animals  rations  freed  as  far 
as  possible  from  it.     Even  tho  the  rations  contain  an  abundance  of 

2  Minn.  Buls.  71,  79,  140. 


MAINTAINING  FARM  ANIMALS  55 

protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat,  the  animals  will  die  thru  mineral 
starvation,  and  generally  the  end  will  come  more  quickly  than  if  no 
food  at  all  is  given.  Mineral  matter  is  found  in  all  the  vital  parts  of 
the  body.  The  life  centers  of  all  the  cells  are  rich  in  phosphoims 
and  the  skeleton  is  largely  composed  of  calcium  (lime)  combined  with 
phosphorus.  As  we  have  seen,  the  power  of  the  blood  to  carry  oxygen 
is  due  to  hemoglobin,  an  iron-protein  compound  in  the  red  blood 
corpuscles.  In  the  stomach,  the  pepsin  acts  only  in  the  presence  of 
hydrochloric  acid,  a  mineral  compound  derived  from  mineral  salts 
in  the  blood. 

A  simple  experiment  often  performed  in  the  laboratory  will  illus- 
trate the  manner  in  which  mineral  salts  control  life  processes.  If  the 
heart,  still  beating,  is  removed  from  a  frog  and  placed  in  a  solution 
of  pure  sodium  chlorid  (common  salt),  its  beats  soon  fade  out.  Now, 
if  a  small  amount  of  a  calcium  salt  (lime)  be  added  to  the  solution, 
the  heart  will  at  once  begin  to  beat  again,  and  will  continue  in  rhyth- 
mical contraction  for  several  hours.  Unless  a  small  amount  of  a  potas- 
sium salt  is  likewise  added,  the  beat  will  not,  however,  be  normal,  the 
heart  failing  to  relax  quickly  and  completely  enough  after  each  eon- 
traction.  The  relaxations  will  become  more  and  more  feeble,  until 
the  heart  stops  in  a  contracted  state.  Not  only  must  potassium  be 
present,  but  there  must  be  a  correct  proportion  between  the  amounts 
of  calcium  and  potassium.  If  too  much  potassium  is  added,  the  heart 
will  fail  to  contract  properly  and  finally  will  again  stop  beating,  but 
this  time  in  a  state  of  complete  relaxation. 

The  common  feeding  stuffs  contain  all  the  necessary  mineral  salts, 
at  least  in  small  amounts.  As  a  rule,  the  roughages,  except  some  of 
the  straws,  are  much  richer  than  the  grains  in  mineral  matter. 
Moreover,  the  body  is  probably  able  to  use  many  of  the  mineral  com- 
pounds over  and  over  again,  taking  them  back  again  into  the  circula- 
tion after  having  been  used.  Therefore,  for  animals  which  have 
finished  their  growth,  the  usual  rations  containing  roughage  furnish 
sufficient  mineral  matter,  except  common  salt.  As  shown  later,  it  is 
advisable  to  supply  farm  animals  common  salt  in  addition  to  that  in 
their  feed.  Since  large  amounts  of  calcium  (lime)  and  phosphorus 
are  needed  to  build  the  skeleton,  these  elements  may  fall  short  in 
rations  for  young  animals. 

Calcmm  and  phosphorus. — Over  90  per  ct.  of  the  mineral  matter 
in  the  skeleton  consists  of  calcium  and  phosphorus.  When  the  supply 
of  either  of  these  is  low  in  the  feed,  the  skeleton  acts  as  a  storehouse, 
doling  out  these  mineral  elements  so  that  the  life  processes  of  the  body 
may  continue  normally  for  a  time.  But  such  withdrawal  of  mineral 
matter  from  the  bones  makes  them  porous  and  brittle.     Indeed,  in 


56 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


certain  localities  where  the  haj^  and  other  roughages  are  unusually 
low  in  calcium  and  phosphorus,  due  to  the  poverty  of  the  soil  in  these 
elements,  the  bones  of  farm  animals  may  become  so  brittle  that  they 
break  with  surprising  ease.  Growing  animals,  whose  bones  are 
rapidly  increasing  in  size,  suffer  from  a  lack  of  these  mineral  elements 
sooner  than  mature  animals.  Because  they  are  fed  chiefly  on  the 
cereal  grains,  which  are  low  in  calcium,  pigs  fail  to  receive  enough 
calcium  more  often  than  do  calves,  colts  and  lambs,  which  eat  hay 
and  other  roughage  as  well.  Of  grown  animals,  those  carrying  their 
young  or  producing  a  heavy  yield  of  milk  are  most  apt  to  suffer  froirj 
a  lack  of  calcium  or  phosphorus. 


Fig.  15. — Farm  Animals  Need  an  Ample  Supply  of  Mineral 
jMatter 

Over  90  per  ct.  of  the  mineral  matter  in  tlie  skeleton  consists  of  calcium  and 
phosphorus.  In  certain  rations  tlie  amount  of  these  mineral  elements  may  be  in- 
sufficient for  health.      ( From  Ellenberger. ) 


Fortunately,  roughage  from  the  legumes,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa, 
and  cowpea  hay,  is  rich  in  phosphorus  and  especially  in  calcium. 
Thus  animals  fed  legume  hay  commonly  receive  plenty  of  these 
mineral  elements.  Straw,  chaff,  the  various  root  crops,  molasses,  and 
the  cereals  and  their  by-products,  such  as  bran  or  middlings,  are 
generally  low  in  calcium.  Beet  pulp,  potatoes,  molasses,  straw,  and 
chaff  are  low  in  phosphorus,  while  the  cereals  and  brans,  oil  cakes, 
and  slaughter-house  and  fish  waste  carry  it  in  abundance.  When 
there  is  danger  of  a  deficiency  of  either  calcium  or  phosphorus,  it  is 


MAINTAINING  FARM  ANIMALS  57 

wise  to  add  a  supply  to  the  ration.  Calcium  may  be  furnished 
cheaply  in  ground  limestone  or  wood  ashes,  and  both  calcium  and 
phosphorus  in  ground  rock  phosphate,  ground  bone,  or  bone  ash.  As 
shown  in  Chapter  XXVII,  it  is  wise  to  keep  a  supply  of  mineral 
matter  before  pigs  at  all  times,  especially  when  confined  to  pens. 

Common  salt. — In  spite  of  the  well-known  hunger  of  herbivorous 
animals  for  salt,  practical  men  have  differed  as  to  the  necessity  or 
advantage  of  adding  it  to  the  ration.  It  is  now  agreed,  however,  that 
salt  should  be  supplied  regularly  to  farm  animals.  It  not  only  serves 
as  a  spice  to  whet  the  appetite  and  add  to  the  palatability  of  many 
feeds,  but  it  also  stimulates  the  digestive  glands  and  prevents  digestive 
disturbances.  At  least  for  cows  in  milk,  a  supply  of  salt  in  addition 
to  that  contained  in  the  feed  is  absolutely  necessary  for  health.  This 
was  shown  in  experiments  by  Babcock  and  Carlyle  at  the  Wisconsin 
Station  ^  in  which  dairy  cows,  well  fed  otherwise,  were  given  no  salt 
for  periods  as  long  as  a  year.  After  varying  lengths  of  time,  a  com- 
plete breakdown  occurred,  marked  by  loss  of  appetite,  lusterless  eyes, 
a  rough  coat,  and  a  rapid  decline  in  body  weight  and  milk  yield. 
When  salt  was  supplied,  recovery  was  rapid. 

Animals  allowed  free  access  to  salt  or  supplied  with  it  at  frequent 
and  regular  intervals  will  take  only  enough  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
body.  Animals  that  have  not  been  supplied  with  salt  for  some  time 
and  are  then  allowed  all  they  will  eat,  may  consume  too  much.  This 
creates  an  abnormal  thirst  and  causes  excessive  drinking,  which  may 
lead  to  digestive  disturbances.  Cows  in  milk  and  sheep  show  the 
greatest  need  of  salt,  horses,  fattening  cattle,  dry  cows,  and  stock 
cattle  require  less,  and  pigs  but  little.  The  needs  of  each  class  of 
farm  animals  for  salt  are  discussed  in  the  respective  chapters  of 
Part  III. 

IV.    Additional  Requirements  of  Animals 

We  have  thus  far  considered  in  detail  only  the  requirements  of 
farm  animals  for  crude  protein,  carbohydrates,  fat  and  mineral 
matter.  However,  just  as  vital  as  the  demands  for  fuel  and  repair 
material,  which  are  met  by  these  nutrients,  is  the  need  for  air  and 
water. 

Air. — ^While  animals  survive  starvation  for  considerable  periods, 
lack  of  air  brings  immediate  death,  since  a  continuous  supply  of 
oxygen  is  required  for  all  vital  processes.  Each  hour  a  cow  breathes 
in  about  117  cubic  feet  of  air,  making  over  2,800  cubic  feet  each 
21:  hours.  For  health,  a  stable  where  animals  are  confined  should 
not  contain  more  than  3.3  per  et.  of  air  which  has  been  previously 

3  Wis.  Rpt.  1905. 


58  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

breathed.  To  provide  cows  with  air  of  this  purity,  there  should  pass 
into  the  stable  for  each  cow  not  less  than  85,000  cubic  feet  of  air  each 
24  hours.*  These  figures  show  the  necessity  of  providing  some  ade- 
quate system  of  ventilation  when  animals  are  confined  in  closed 
stables,  as  are  horses  and  dairy  cattle  during  the  winter  in  the  north- 
ern states. 

Water. — Animals  can  live  much  longer  without  solid  food  than 
without  water.  An  abundant  supply  of  water  is  necessary  for  all  the 
vital  processes  of  the  body,  such  as  the  digestion  and  absorption  of 
food  nutrients  and  the  removal  of  waste  from  the  body.  As  already 
shown,  water  is  also  an  agent  in  regulating  the  body  temperature, 
both  thru  the  vapor  given  off  by  the  lungs  and  the  evaporation  of 
sweat  from  the  surface  of  the  body. 

Scientists  agree  that  farm  animals  should  have  all  the  water  they 
will  drink  at  regular  intervals,  for  they  do  not  take  it  in  excess  unless 
they  are  forced  to  live  on  watery  foods  or  are  given  salt  irregularly. 
The  water  for  stock  must  be  fresh  and  pure  to  avoid  disease.  AH 
water  drunk  must  be  raised  to  the  temperature  of  the  body,  thus  con- 
suming heat.  AA^arming  cold  water  taken  into  the  body  does  not 
necessarily  mean  that  more  food  must  be  burned,  for  animals  pro- 
duce a  large  amount  of  heat  in  the  M'ork  of  digesting  food  and  con- 
•  verting  the  digested  matter  into  body  products  or  work.  Due  to  this, 
many  animals  create  an  excess  of  body  heat.  Comfortably  housed  and 
well-fed  steers  and  dairy  cattle  may  produce  more  heat  thru  this  means 
than  is  needed  to  warm  their  bodies  and  the  excess  may  go  to  warm 
the  water  they  drink,  so  that  no  food  is  directly  burned  for  that 
purpose.  However,  when  animals  are  watered  but  once  a  day  they 
then  drink  a  large  amount.  In  M'inter  if  the  water  is  cold  this  makes 
a  sudden  demand  for  a  large  amount  of  heat,  which  may  exceed  the 
amount  of  excess  heat  being  produced  in  the  body.  Food  must  then 
be  burned  simply  to  warm  the  water,  even  tho  thereafter  an  excess  of 
heat  may  be  produced  in  the  body.  For  this  reason,  feed  may  be 
saved  by  watering  frequently  animals  unduly  exposed  to  cold  and 
those  fed  scanty  rations,  or  else  by  warming  the  water.  During 
severe  winter  weather  cows  producing  a  heavy  yield  of  milk  need  mdre 
water  than  they  are  apt  to  drink  if  it  is  supplied  too  cold.  Under 
such  conditions  their  water  should  be  warmed. 

Commonly  unappreciated  factors  in  food. — AVithin  recent  years 
evidence  has  been  accumulating  which  shows  that  the  classes  of 
nutrients  previously  discussed — proteins,  carbohydrates,  fats,  and 
mineral  matter — are  not  all  that  is  needed  to  make  a  satisfactory 
ration.     It  has  long  been  known  that  when  humans  live  for  long 

4  From  King,  Ventilation  for  Dwellings,  Rural  Schools,  and  Stables. 


MAINTAINING  FARM  ANIMALS  59 

periods  on  a  diet  containing  no  fresh  vegetables  or  meat,  scurvy  is 
apt  to  result,  even  tlio  an  abundance  of  the  common  nutrients  is  fur- 
nished. The  addition  to  the  diet  of  fresh  vegetables  readily  prevents 
this  disease.  In  districts  of  the  Orient  where  the  inhabitants  live 
mainly  on  polished  rice,  there  is  often  found  a  serious  disease  known 
as  beri-bein,  characterized  by  general  weakness  and  even  paralysis. 
Where  unpolished  rice,  carrying  the  germ  and  part  of  the  husk,  is 
eaten  instead,  this  disease  is  not  found.  In  experiments  by  various 
scientists  a  similar  condition  has  been  produced  in  animals  fed  almost 
exclusively  on  polished  rice,  while  the  unpolished  grain  did  not  have 
such  an  effect.     Tho  many  attempts  have  been  made  to  determine  the 


Fig.  16. — Commonly  Unappreciated  Substances  Are  Needed  for 

Growth 

Hoth  rats  were  fed  "balanced  rations"  containing  an  abundance  of  suitable  pro- 
tein and  mineral  matter.  The  rat  on  the  right,  given  butter  fat  in  addition,  grew 
tluiftily,  wliile  the  one  on  the  left,  fed  cottonseed  oil,  wliich  lacks  the  mysterious 
substance  present  in  butter  fat,  failed  to  grow.  (From  McCollum,  Wisconsin 
Station.) 

mysterious  substance  in  the  rice  husk  or  germ  which  exerts  such  a 
marked  influence  on  health,  but  little  is  yet  known  regarding  its 
composition. 

Another  important  development  in  recent  years  has  been  the  find- 
ing that  some  of  the  substances  included  in  the  ether-extract,  or 
so-called  "fat,"  of  feeds  are  necessary  to  the  well-being  cf  animals. 
Animals  fed  upon  feeds  which  contain  an  insufficient  amount  of  these 
unknown  substances  fail  to  grow  and  eventually  die.  If  there  is 
added  to  the  same  ration  some  food  which  is  rich  in  these  materials, 
such  as  butter  fat,  for  example,  normal  growth  can  then  be  made. 
These  substances  are  not  true  fats,  but  compounds  of  unknown  nature 


60  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

which  are  soluble  in  fats  and  also  in  the  ether  which  the  chemist  uses 
to  dissolve  the  fat  from  a  feed. 

Studies  of  this  character  are  beginning  to  open  up  new  fields  of 
investigation  in  animal  nutrition.  It  is  yet  too  early  to  predict  in 
what  manner  or  to  what  extent  the  results  may  modify  our  present 
practices  in  feeding  farm  animals.  These  fragments  are,  however, 
most  interesting  to  the  student  in  showing  the  limitations  to  our 
present  understanding  of  the  feeding  of  animals  and  in  pointing  out 
the  possible  path  of  future  development. 

Feeding  concentrates  alone  to  animals. — By  reason  of  their  high 
ability  to  digest  coarse  roughage,  ruminants  are  especially  adapted  to 
convert  the  coarse  plant  materials  of  no  value  for  human  food  into 
useful  products.  Tho  ordinarily  it  would  be  unprofitable  to  feed 
such  animals  solely  on  concentrates,  the  question  whether  they  can 
be  so  maintained  is  of  scientific  interest.  Dry  dairy  cows  have  been 
kept  thru  the  winter  in  fair  condition  on  corn  meal  with  no  hay.  At 
first  they  were  restless,  *but  soon  quieted  down  and  rumination,  or 
chewing  the  cud,  ceased.  A  2-year-old  steer  was  fed  for  nearly  eight 
months  exclusively  on  grain,  and  sheep  are  not  infrequently  fed  only 
grain  and  roots.  We  may  therefore  conclude  that  mature  ruminants 
can  be  maintained  for  considerable  periods,  if  not  indefinitely,  on 
concentrates  alone.  With  young  ruminants  Nature  is  less  yielding, 
for  all  attempts  to  raise  calves  on  milk  and  grain  without  hay  or  other 
roughage  have  ended  in  failure.  Apparently  some  coarse  feed  is 
needed  to  fill  the  first  three  stomachs  so  they  may  develop  properly. 

Efforts  to  keep  horses  on  oats  alone  were  unsuccessful,  the  horses 
refusing  the  oats  after  a  few  days.  Evidently  horses  cannot  live  on 
concentrates  alone,  even  oats  with  their  straw-like  hulls.  On  the  other 
hand,  pigs  can  be  maintained  without  roughage.  A  23-lb.  sow  pig 
was  raised  solely  on  milk  and  when  about  1  year  old  gave  birth  to  a 
litter  of  vigorous  pigs. 

Succulent  feeds. — Numerous  scientific  trials  and  common  farm 
experience  have  abundantly  demonstrated  the  value  of  adding  succu- 
lent feeds  to  the  rations  of  farm  animals.  The  beneficial  effects  of 
succulence,  whether  supplied  as  pasturage,  silage,  soilage,  or  roots, 
are  many.  Just  as  our  own  appetites  are  stimulated  by  fruits  and 
vegetables,  succulent  feeds  are  relishes  for  the  animals  of  the  farm, 
inducing  them  to  consume  more  feed  and  economically  convert  it  into 
useful  products.  It  is  reasonable  to  hold  that  such  palatable  feeds 
stimulate  digestion  and  it  is  well  known  that  their  beneficial  laxative 
effect  aids  in  keeping  the  digestive  tract  in  good  condition.  Among 
the  most  important  contributions  of  the  experiment  stations  are  their 
demonstrations  of  the  economy  of  feeding  silage  to  milch  cows,  fatten- 


MAINTAINING  FARM  ANIMALS 


61 


ing  cattle  and  sheep,  and  of  the  possibilities  of  cheapening  the  cost  of 
producing  pork  thru  the  utilization  of  suitable  pasture.  The  merits 
of  the  various  forms  of  succulence  for  the  different  farm  animals  are 
discussed  in  later  chapters. 

Exercise;  light. — For  the  maintenance  of  health,  exercise  is  essen- 
tial. The  only  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  fattening  animals,  soon  to 
be  marketed,  which  make  more  rapid  gains  if  not  allowed  to  move 
about  too  freely.     Abundant  exercise  is  of  special  importance  with 


Fig.  17. — Comfortable  Quarters,  8unny  and  "Well-ventilated,  In- 
crease Profits 

Comfortable,  well-lighted,  and  well-ventilated  quarters,  and  quiet  and  regularity 
in  feeding  are  nearly  as  important  as  supplying  balanced  rations.  (From  Guern- 
sey Breeder's  Journal.) 


breeding  animals.  The  exercise  requirements  of  the  various  farm 
animals  are  discussed  in  the  respective  chapters  of  Part  III. 

Sunlight  is  an  effective  germicide.  To  prevent  the  contraction  and 
spread  of  disease,  it  is  therefore  important  that  the  stables  be  well- 
lighted.  For  fattening  animals  the  quarters  may  be  darkened  some- 
what, as  this  tends  to  keep  them  quiet  and  thus  favors  fattening. 

Quiet  and  regularity. — Farm  animals  are  creatures  of  habit,  and 
once  accustomed  to  a  routine  of  living  show  unrest  at  any  change. 
The  stable  and  feed  lot  should  be  free  from  disturbance,  and  the 


62  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

administration  of  feed  and  water  should  be  uniform  in  time  and 
manner.  Animals  soon  learn  the  feeding  hour,  and  as  it  approaches 
the  secretions  pour  from  the  various  digestive  glands  in  anticipation  of 
the  coming  meal.  Changes  should  be  made  gradually  and  only  for 
good  reason,  for  in  all  feeding  operations  a  changing  period  is  usually 
a  losing  one. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Define  a  maintenance  ration.     Wliat  four  body  needs  must  it  meet? 

2.  Describe  the  production  of  heat  in  tlie  body  and  state  how  it  differs  from  the 
burning  of  fuel  in  a  stove. 

3.  How  do  farm. animals  regulate  the  temperature  of  their  bodies? 

4.  In  maintaining  a  mature  animal  for  what  is  most  of  the  food  used? 

5.  How   wide   nutritive   ratios   may   rations   for   maintaining   mature   animals 
have? 

6.  What  sort  of  feeds  would  you  give  a  mature,  idle  horse? 

7.  Are  aniids  and  true  proteins  of  the  same  value? 

8.  What  mineral  elements  are  most  apt  to  be  deficient  in  rations? 

9.  Name  some   feeds  that  are   low  and  others  that  are  high   in  calcium   and 
phosphorus? 

10.  If  a  ration   did  not  contain  enough   calcium   or   enough   pliospliorus,   what 
would  you  add? 

11.  How  has  it  been  shown  that  cows  must  be  supplied  with  common  salt? 

12.  Why  is  a  good  system  of  ventilation  necessary  in  stables? 

13.  How    much    water    should    farm    animals    be    given?     For    what    animals 
should  it  be  warmed  in  winter? 

14.  Can  animals  be  maintained  on  concentrates  alone? 

15.  Discuss  the  value  of  succulent  feeds,  exercise,  light,  and   quiet  and  regu- 
larity. 


CHAPTER  V 

GROWTH  AND  FATTENING 

I.     Growth 

We  have  seen  in  the  preceding  chapter  that  for  maintaining  mature 
animals  but  relatively  little  protein  and  mineral  matter  are  needed  to 
replace  the  small  daily  waste  of  these  substances  from  the  body.  The 
requirements  for  young,  growing  animals  are  far  different,  for  their 
bodies  are  increasing  rapidly  in  both  protein  and  mineral  matter. 


i 

m 

'I? 

mjm 

1 

iP-'C  ril      ■■■■1 

Fig.  18. — Young  Animals  Need  Abundant  Protein  and  Mineral 

Matter 

Since  the  skeleton  and  protein  tissues  are  steadily  increasing  in  size  during 
growth,  young  animals  require  feeds  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter.  ( From 
Fuller,  Wisconsin  Station.) 

In  the  growing  body  and  its  organs  considerable  fat  is  also  stored, 
especially  if  the  animal  is  well  fed.  Therefore  the  growing  animal, 
in  addition  to  being  supplied  with  enough  food  to  maintain  its  weight, 
must  receive  additional  nutrients  to  provide  for  the  building  of  its 
body. 

63 


64  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Requirements  for  growing  animals. — The  skin,  muscles,  ligaments, 
tendons,  and  internal  organs  of  animals  are  almost  wholly  protein,  as 
is  a  large  part  of  the  nervous  system  and  the  organic  portion  of  the 
bones.  During  youth,  all  these  parts  steadily  increase  in  size,  and  at 
the  same  time  much  mineral  matter  is  built  into  the  skeleton  or  is 
retained  in  the  vital  parts  of  the  body  cells.  It  is  therefore  clear 
that  the  rations  for  growing  animals  should  contain  a  much  larger 
proportion  of  protein  and  mineral  matter  than  is  needed  in  those  for 
maintaining  mature  animals.  After  growth  is  completed,  but  little 
storage  of  protein  or  mineral  matter  can  take  place,  for  the  skeleton, 
the  muscles,  and  the  internal  organs  have  reached  full  development. 
However,  if  an  animal  is  healthy  but  has  poor  muscular  development, 
some  increase  in  the  size  of  the  muscles  can  be  made  thru  suitable 
exercise  and  an  ample  supply  of  protein.  Beyond  this,  the  only 
storage  of  protein  which  can  occur  is  in  the  growth  of  the  nitrog- 
enous hair  and  hoofs,  and  the  small  amount  of  protein  stored  in  the 
fatty  tissues. 

We  have  seen  that  maintenance  rations  may  consist  chiefly  of 
roughage,  which  furnishes  little  net  energy.  On  the  other  hand,  for 
thrifty  growth,  the  ration  must  be  more  concentrated  (that  is,  must 
furnish  more  net  energy)  to  provide  for  the  energy  stored  in  the 
growing  tissues  of  the  body  in  the  form  of  protein  and  fat. 

Milk  the  natural  food  for  young  mammals. — Since  milk  is  Nature 's 
food  for  the  young  of  all  mammals,  it  is  reasonable  to  hold  that  it  con- 
tains all  the  nutrients  necessary  to  sustain  life  in  the  young,  and  that 
these  are  in  proper  proportion.  A  study  of  the  composition  of  milk, 
as  given  in  the  following  table,^  will  therefore  aid  in  showing  the  re- 
quirements for  growth. 

Composition  of  colostrum  and  normal  milk 

..,-.,  X  Nutri- 

Animal  and  character             w-^i^i:  Protein  Fat  Sugar  Ash  live 

of  milk  ratio 

Per  ct.  Per  ct.  Per  ct.  Per  ct.  Per  ct. 

Cow,  colostrum   75.1           17.2  4.0             2.3  1..5  1:0.7 

Cow,   normal    87.3             3.4  3.7             4.9  0.7  1:3.9 

Ewe,  colostrum    61.8  17.1  16.1  3.5  1.0  1:2.3 

Ewe,   normal    80.8  6.5  6.9  4.9  0.9  1 :3.1 

Sow,  colostrum    70.1  15.6  9.5  3.8  0.9  1:1.6 

Sow,   normal    84.1  7.2  4.6  3.1  1.1  1:2.0 

The  first  milk  yielded  by  the  mother,  called  colostrum,  is  thicker 
anch  far  higher  in  protein  and  often  richer  in  ash  than  ordinary  milk. 
Colostrum  is  laxative  and  highly  important  for  cleansing  the  alimen- 

iKonig,  Chem.  Nahrungs-  und  Genussmittel,  Vol.  I,  1903. 


GROWTH  AND  FATTENING  65 

tary  canal  of  aeeumulated  waste  matter  and  properly  starting  the 
work  of  digestion.  During  the  week  following  birth  the  composi- 
tion of  the  milk  gradually  changes  to  normal. 

Tho  normal  milk  is  lower  in  protein  than  colostrum  milk,  it  eon- 
tains  an  abundant  supply  compared  with  the  cereals.  For  example, 
Appendix  Table  III  shows  that  the  nutritive  ratio  (i.e.,  the  propor- 
tion of  protein  to  other  nutrients)  is  1:4.4  for  cow's  milk,  while  it  is 
1 :10.4  for  corn.  Milk  is  also  much  richer  in  ash,  or  mineral  matter, 
than  are  the  cereal  grains.  While  only  1.7  per  ct.  of  the  dry  matter 
of  corn  and  3.9  per  ct.  of  the  dry  matter  of  oats  is  mineral  matter,  the 
dry  matter  of  cow 's  milk  contains  5.5  per  ct.  The  supply  of  calcium 
(lime)  and  phosphorus,  needed  in  large  amounts  in  the  growing  skel- 
eton, is  especially  liberal,  these  two  constituents  forming  over  half  the 
total  mineral  matter. 

These  studies  of  the  composition  of  milk  teach  that  after  weaning 
young  animals  should  be  given  feeds  similar  to  milk  in  composition; 
i.e.,  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter.  For  this  reason,  such  feeds 
as  hay  from  clover,  alfalfa,  or  other  legumes  and  protein-rich  concen- 
trates, like  wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings,  and  linseed  meal,  are  of  high 
value  for  growing  animals. 

Protein  must  be  of  proper  quality. — Only  a  few  years  ago  scien- 
tists believed  that  an  ample  quantity  of  protein  was  all  that  was  neces- 
sary for  normal  growth.  ]\Iany  recent  experiments  show,  however, 
that  not  only  must  the  qiiantity  of  protein  in  the  food  be  abundant, 
but  it  must  also  be  of  the  proper  Mnd  or  quality,  if  the  animal  is  to 
grow  thriftily.  We  have  seen  in  Chapter  I  that  the  proteins  are 
made  up  of  many  different  amino  acids  (the  protein  building  stones) 
and  that  tlie  amounts  of  these  different  amino  acids  in  various  plant 
proteins  differ  widely.  Some  are  well-balanced,  containing  consid- 
erable amounts  of  all  the  amino  acids,  while  in  others  certain  of  the 
amino  acids  may  be  entirely  lacking.  All  the  different  amino  acids 
are  needed  to  form  the  proteins  of  the  body,  but  animals  are  able  to 
manufacture  only  one  of  these  amino  acids  in  their  bodies  from  other 
compounds  of  the  food.  Therefore,  for  normal  growth  the  food  must 
furnish  all  the  necessary  amino  acids,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
a  single  one. 

The  following  illustration  will  show  the  conditions  an  animal  may 
meet  in  forming  body  proteins  from  the  mixture  of  amino  acids  re- 
sulting from  the  digestion  of  the  food  protein :  Suppose  we  are  build- 
ing a  brick  wall  in  a  certain  pattern  which  requires  that  1  brick  in  10 
have  a  green  end.  If  we  are  using  as  our  source  of  material  a  pile 
of  bricks  resulting  from  the  taking  down  of  another  wall,  in  which 
only  1  brick  in  50  had  a  green  end,  it  is  evident  that  we  will  soon 


66  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

have  to  stop  rebuilding,  tho  having  many  perfect  bricks  left,  because 
none  have  the  green  end  required  for  the  pattern. 

Some  proteins,  such  as  the  principal  ones  of  wheat,  furnish  as  much 
as  40  per  ct.  of  a  single  amino  acid,  which  forms  only  14  per  ct.  of  the 
animal  proteins.  "When  such  protein  alone  is  given  to  growing  ani- 
mals, obviously  a  considerable  part  will  be  wasted  and  growth  will  be 
checked.  Proteins  which  entirely  lack  some  of  the  necessary  amino 
acids  will  produce  no  growth  whatever  when  fed  alone.  However,  if 
the  necessary  amino  acids  are  added  to  the  ration,  the  animal  will  be 
able  to  continue  growth. 

The  various  incomplete  or  unbalanced  proteins  do  not  all  lack  the 
same  amino  acids.  Hence,  when  two  incomplete  proteins  are  com- 
bined one  may  supplement  the  deficiencies  of  the  other  and  better 
growth  be  made  than  on  either  alone.  For  example,  experiments 
with  pigs  -  have  shown  that  when  corn  alone  was  fed  but  23  per  ct.  of 
the  protein  was  built  into  body  protein,  and  when  only  linseed  meal 
was  fed,  but  17  per  ct.  When  a  mixture  of  three-fourths  corn  and 
one-fourth  linseed  meal  was  given,  the  results  were  considerably  better 
than  on  either  feed  alone,  37  per  ct.  of  the  protein  being  used  in 
growth.  This  indicates  that  corn  and  linseed  meal  are  not  deficient 
in  the  same  amino  acids,  and  that  when  combined  one  feed  helps  to 
correct  the  deficiencies  of  the  other.  It  is  doubtless  partly  due  to  this 
fact  that  better  results  are  often  secured  in  practice  when  a  variety  of 
feeds  is  used  than  when  but  one  or  two  are  fed.  The  greater  variety 
lessens  the  danger  of  a  deficiency  in  the  proteins  furnished. 

The  various  chapters  of  Part  III  show  the  combinations  of  feeds 
which  have  been  most  successfully  used  for  growing  animals  of  the 
various  classes. 

Mineral  matter  required  for  growth. — It  has  already  been  shown 
that  the  young  animal,  growing  rapidly  in  skeleton  and  body  tissues, 
needs  a  liberal  supply  of  mineral  matter,  especially  calcium  (lime) 
and  phosphorus.  Enough  must  be  furnished  not  only  to  provide  for 
the  growth  of  the  muscles,  bones,  etc.,  but  to  replace  the  small  daily 
loss  from  the  body. 

The  injurious  effects  of  a  lack  of  mineral  matter  are  shown  in  a 
trial  at  the  Wisconsin  Station  ^  in  which  one  lot  of  growing  pigs  was 
fed  wheat  bran  from  which  most  of  the  phosphorus  had  been  removed 
by  washing,  together  with  wheat  gluten  and  rice,  both  of  which  feeds 
are  extremely  poor  in  mineral  matter.  Other  lots  were  fed  the  same 
ration  plus  ground  rock  phosphate  or  bone  ash,  which  supplied  ample 
calcium   and  phosphorus.     For   a  considerable   period   all   the   pigs 

2McCollum,  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.,  19,  1914,  p.  .323;  information  to  the  authors. 
3  Hart,  McCollum  and  Fuller,  Wis.  Res.  Bui.  1. 


GROWTH  AND  FATTENING  67 

throve  fairly  well,  but  as  time  went  on  those  fed  the  ration  poor  in 
mineral  matter  fell  behind  the  others.  They  had  no  appetite  and 
disliked  to  stand  up ;  later  they  lost  control  of  their  hind  quarters  and 
had  to  be  carried  to  the  trough  at  feeding  time.  When  the  pigs  were 
slaughtered,  it  was  found  that  those  fed  insufficient  phosphorus  had 
light,  weak  bones,  while  those  receiving  ground  rock  phosphate  or 
bone  ash  had  strong,  heavy  ones. 

Since  the  common  feeds  which  are  high  in  protein  are  also  rich  in 
phosphorus,  probably  plenty  of  phosphorus  will  be  furnished  when 
rations  are  balanced  according  to  the  usual  feeding  standards.     The 


Fig.  19. — Pigs  Fed  a  Ration  Low  in  Phosphorus 

These  young  pigs,  fed  a  ration  very  low  in  phosphorus  at  the  Wisconsin  Station, 
are  stunted  and  have  lost  control  of  their  hind  quarters.  Pigs  fed  the  same  ra- 
tion with  ground  rock  phosphate  in  addition  grew  thriftily.  (From  Hart,  Wis- 
consin Station.) 

calcium  supply  for  calves  and  lambs  will  usually  be  ample  when  hay 
and  the  cereals  form  the  greater  part  of  the  ration.  Deficiencies  may 
occur  in  regions  where  the  roughages  are  unusually  low  in  calcium,  or 
when  large  amounts  of  such  roughages  as  wheat  straw,  barley  straw, 
or  timothy  hay  are  fed.  Where  pigs  are  fed  exclusively  on  the  cereal 
grains,  especially  corn,  the  calcium  supply  will  usually  be  too  low. 
As  shown  in  the  preceding  chapter,  when  calcium  alone  is  lacking, 
it  may  be  supplied  in  legume  hay  or  in  the  form  of  ground  limestone. 
If  only  phosphorus,  or  if  both  calcium  and  phosphorus  are  lacking, 
these  may  be  furnished  in  ground  rock  phosphate,  ground  bone,  or 
bone  ash. 

Utilization  of  food  by  young  animals.— The  gains  made  by  thrifty, 
well-fed  young  animals  are  much  larger  and  more  economical,  based 
on  live  weight  and  food  consumed,  than  those  of  mature  animals.  For 
example,  an  unweaned  calf  may  gain  2  to  3  lbs.  daily  for  each  100  lbs. 
of  body  weight,  while  a  daily  gain  of  0.3  to  0.4  lb.  per  100  lbs,  of 


68  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

body  weight  is  large  for  a  mature  fattening  steer.  The  more  rapid 
gains  of  young  animals  are  due  to  several  causes.  They  consume 
more  food  per  100  lbs.  live  weight  and  thus  have  more  food  left  to 
make  gain  after  their  bodies  are  maintained.  Young  lambs  fed  cow's 
milk  have  even  stored  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  protein,  over  90 
per  ct.  of  the  calcium,  and  about  three-fourths  of  the  phosphorus  sup- 
plied in  their  food.  The  flesh  of  young  animals  is  more  watery  than 
that  of  older  ones.  Hence,  each  pound  of  the  gain  they  make  con- 
tains less  dry  matter  than  in  the  case  of  older  animals. 

II.    Fattening 

The  object  of  fattening. — ^Ye  all  know  that  the  lean  meat  from  a 
well-fattened  animal  is  better  flavored  and  more  juicy  and  tender  than 
from  a  lean  one.  This  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  lean  meat, 
and  not  the  storage  of  thick  masses  of  fat,  is  the  main  object  in  fat- 
tening animals  before  they  are  slaughtered  for  meat.  To  some  extent 
during  growth,  and  especially  during  fattening,  fat  is  stored  in  the 
lean-meat  tissues,  chiefly  between  the  bundles  of  fibers  of  which  the 
muscles  are  composed.  This  storage  of  fat,  which  forms  the  so-called 
"marbling"  of  meat,  adds  to  its  tenderness,  juiciness,  and  flavor,  be- 
sides increasing  the  digestibility  and  nutritive  value. 

What  fattening  is. — The  fattening  of  animals  is  what  the  term  im- 
plies, chiefly  the  laying  on  of  fat.  Many  years  ago  Lawes  and  Gilbert 
of  the  Eothamsted  (England)  Station,*  by  analyzing  the  bodies  of 
animals  slaughtered  at  various  stages  of  fattening  found  that  the  in- 
crease of  steers  when  nearly  full  grown  was  about  two-thirds  fat,  and 
only  7.7  per  ct.  protein  and  1.5  per  ct.  mineral  matter.  With  pigs 
the  proportion  of  fat  was  even  greater.  The  younger  the  animals  are 
when  they  are  fattened,  the  greater  will  be  the  storage  of  protein  and 
mineral  matter.  This  is  shown  in  the  following  table,  which  shows 
the  results  of  experiments  at  the  IMissouri  Station.^  There  is  first 
given  the  composition  of  the  carcass  of  a  748-lb.  steer  in  thrifty  grow- 
ing condition,  followed  by  the  composition  of  the  gains  made  by  sim- 
ilar steers  during  fattering. 

Composition  of  un fattened  steer  and  gains  during  fattening 

Fat  Protein                 Ash  Water 

Per  ct.  Per  ct.  Per  ct.  Per  ct. 

Carcass  of  unfattened  steer   18.6                 18.8  5.7  56.4 

First  500  lbs.  of  gain 48.6                 11.9  2.0  37.6 

Second  500  lbs.  of  gain    75.6                   5.2                  1.5  17.8 

4  Jour.  Roy.  Agr.  Soc.,  1860. 

5  Waters,  Mumford,  and  Trowbridge,  information  to  the  authors. 


GROWTH  AND  FATTENING  69 

While  the  carcass  of  the  steer  killed  before  fattening  contained  only 
18.6  per  ct.  fat,  the  first  500  lbs.  of  gain  was  nearly  half,  and  the  last 
500  lbs.  over  three-fourths  fat.  During  the  first  500  lbs.  of  gain,  11.9 
per  ct.  of  the  increase  was  protein,  but  in  the  last  500  lbs.  of  gain  only 
5.2  per  ct.  was  protein.  The  storage  of  ash  was  likewise  less  as  the 
animal  matured. 

How  body  fat  is  formed. — Since  fattening  is  chiefly  a  storage  of 
body  fat,  in  studying  the  feed  requirements  of  fattening  animals  it  is 
most  important  to  learn  from  what  substances  in  the  feed  this  body 
fat  may  be  formed.  By  numerous  feeding  experiments  it  has  been 
shown  that  after  enough  nutrients  have  been  supplied  to  maintain  the 
body,  any  excess — no  matter  whether  fat,  carbohydrates,  or  protein — • 
may  be  transformed  into  body  fat. 

The  fat  in  the  food  is  not  commonly  stored  in  the  body  without 
being  altered.  As  a  result,  even  when  all  are  fed  the  very  same  feeds, 
the  fat  formed  by  the  steer,  sheep,  and  pig  will  differ  considerably  in 
chemical  properties.  All  the  digested  fat  taken  into  the  body  beyond 
that  required  for  maintenance  cannot  be  deposited  as  body  fat,  since 
considerable  losses  always  occur  thru  the  energy  used  up  in  digestion 
and  assimilation.  The  largest  part  of  the  fat  stored  in  the  body  is 
undoubtedly  formed  from  the  carbohydrates  of  the  food,  for  these  are 
the  most  abundant  nutrients  in  all  common  rations.  When  more  pro- 
tein is  furnished  than  is  needed  for  the  repair  of  the  body  tissues,  the 
remainder  may,  after  the  nitrogen  is  split  off,  also  be  changed  into 
body  fat. 

The  ration  for  fattening. — Since  the  fattening  of  mature  animals 
consists  mainly  in  the  storage  of  fat,  there  is  no  demand  for  a  large 
supply  of  protein  for  fattening  animals.  However,  it  is  not  advis- 
able to  feed  a  ration  having  a  wider  nutritive  ratio  than  1 :10  or  1 :12, 
for,  as  we  have  seen  in  Chapter  III,  when  less  protein  than  this  is  fed 
the  digestibility  of  the  ration  is  decreased.  Since  any  excess  of  pro- 
tein can  be  changed  into  fat,  where  protein-rich  feeds  are  cheaper 
than  those  of  a  carbonaceous  character,  it  may  be  profitable  to  feed 
rations  having  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio.  For  example,  in  the  South, 
where  cottonseed  meal  is  frequently  the  only  concentrate  used,  fatten- 
ing steers  are  often  fed  rations  having  nutritive  ratios  of  1 :4,  or  even 
narrower.  Animals  in  thin  flesh  should  at  first  receive  a  liberal  sup- 
ply of  protein  so  that  their  muscular  tissues  may  develop. 

Because  young  animals  make  the  most  economical  gains,  most  of 
the  meat-producing  animals  in  this  country  are  fattened  and  mar- 
keted before  maturity.  Such  animals  add  not  only  fat  but  also  con- 
siderable lean  meat  to  their  bodies  as  they  fatten,  and  therefore  re- 


70  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

quire  more  protein  than  mature  animals.  From  a  survey  of  the  many 
feeding-  trials  carried  on  by  the  experiment  stations  of  this  country, 
the  authors  believe  that  2-year-old  steers  should  not  be  fed  rations 
wider  than  1 :7  or  1 :8  when  being  fattened.  Depending  on  their  age, 
fattening  lambs  should  not  be  fed  rations  wider  than  1 :5  to  1 :8. 
(See  Appendix  Table  V.) 

Factors  influencing  fattening. — The  storage  of  fat  in  an  animal 
depends  primarily  upon  the  quantity  of  food  consumed  in  excess  of 
maintenance  and  growth  requirements.  Fattening  may  take  place  at 
any  age,  tho  the  tendency  of  young  animals  to  grow  greatly  reduces 
the  proportion  of  food  usually  available  for  fattening.  Supplying  an 
abundance  of  feeds  that  are  palatable,  concentrated,  and  largely  di- 
gestible aids  rapid  fattening,  because  a  large  surplus  of  nutrients 
then  remains  after  supplying  the  body  needs. 

The  disposition  of  an  animal  to  fatten  depends  upon  breed  and 
temperament.  While  a  wild  animal,  nervous  and  active,  can  be  fat- 
tened only  with  difficulty,  domesticated  animals  are  more  quiet  and 
usually  fatten  readily.  The  restless  animal  is  rarely  a  good  feeder, 
while  the  quiet  one,  which  is  inclined  to  eat  and  lie  down,  will  show 
superior  gains.  This  is  not  due  to  difference  in  digestive  powers,  but 
rather  to  the  fact  that  the  quiet  animal  has,  from  a  given  amount  of 
feed,  a  greater  surplus  of  nutrients  for  fat  building.  Fattening  ani- 
mals must  not  be  allowed  to  exercise  too  much  as  this  wastes  nutrients 
which  they  might  store  in  their  bodies. 

Returns  from  feed. — The  following  table  ^  shows  the  amount  of 
food  suitable  for  man  returned  by  the  different  classes  of  farm  ani- 
mals from  each  100  lbs.  of  digestible  matter  consumed : 

Human  food  produced  from  100  lbs.  of  digestihle  matter  consumed 

Marketable  Edible  Marketable  Edible 

Animal                     product  solids                            Animal  product  solids 

Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Cow    (milk)     139.0  18.0  Poultry    (eggs)  ....      19.6  5.1 

Pig    (dressed)     25.0  15.6  Poultry     (dressed)     .      15.6  4.2 

Cow    (cheese)     14.8  9.4  Lamb     (dressed)  ...        9.6  3.2 

Calf    (dressed)    36.5  8.1  Steer    (dressed)  ....        8.3  2.8 

Cow    (butter)    6.4  5.4  Sheep    (dressed)  ...        7.0  2.6 

The  table,  which  presents  one  side  of  a  most  complicated  problem, 
shows  that  for  100  lbs.  of  digestible  nutrients  consumed  the  cow 
yields  about  139  lbs.  of  milk,  containing  18  lbs.  of  solids,  practically 
all  digestible.  She  easily  leads  all  farm  animals  in  her  power  to  eon- 
vert  the  crops  of  the  field  into  human  food.  The  pig  produces  about 
25  lbs.  of  dressed  carcass.  Allowing  for  water,  bone,  and  gristle, 
there  remains  over  15  lbs.  of  edible  dry  meat.     The  steer  and  sheep 

6  Jordan,  The  Feeding  of  Animals. 


GROWTH  AND  FATTENING  71 

yield  less  than  10  lbs.  of  dressed  carcass,  nearly  half  of  which  is  water. 
Deducting  this  and  the  bone  and  gristle,  there  remains  only  from  2.6 
to  3.2  lbs.  of  water-free  edible  meat. 

The  economy  of  gains  by  animals  when  young  is  evident  on  compar- 
ing the  figures  for  the  calf  with  those  for  the  steer,  and  those  for  the 
lamb  with  those  for  sheep.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  the  pig  ex- 
cels all  other  meat-producing  animals  in  the  eflficiency  with  which  he 
produces  human  food.  This  is  largely  because  he  eats  more  feed  per 
100  lbs.  live  weight,  and  also  because  his  food  is  more  concentrated  and 
digestible.  Both  these  factors  increase  the  proportion  of  the  food  con- 
sumed which  can  be  used  for  producing  gain. 

III.     Studies  on  Grov^th  and  Fattening 

Feeding  pigs  corn  only. — In  1884  Sanborn  of  the  Missouri  Agricul- 
tural College  '  carried  on  trials  in  which  growing  pigs  fed  exclusively 
on  corn  meal  were  compared  with  others  fed  on  corn  meal  and  either 
wheat  middlings  or  dried  blood.  The  corn-meal  ration  furnished  an 
abundance  of  easily  digested  carbohydrates  and  fat,  but  was  deficient 
in  protein  and  mineral  matter.  The  addition  of  dried  blood  or  wheat 
middlings  to  corn  meal  formed  a  ration  rich  in  protein  and  mineral 
matter  as  well  as  in  carbohydrates  and  fat.  Compared  with  the  corn- 
fed  pigs,  those  getting  rations  rich  in  protein  had  a  larger  muscular 
development  and  more  blood,  and  some  of  their  internal  organs  were 
larger. 

Realizing  the  fundamental  importance  of  Sanborn's  studies,  the 
senior  author  ^  conducted  numerous  trials  at  the  Wisconsin  Station  in 
which  dried  blood,  wheat  middlings,  field  peas,  and  skim  milk,  with 
or  without  corn  meal,  were  fed  in  opposition  to  corn  meal  alone. 
Similar  trials  were  conducted  at  the  Kansas  and  Alabama  Stations 
and  in  France.  Thus  at  5  widely  separated  points  pigs  were  fed  ra- 
tions rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter,  usually  containing  some 
corn  meal,  in  opposition  to  corn  meal  alone,  which  is  rich  in  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat  but  low  in  protein  and  mineral  matter. 

Feeding  corn  alone  not  only  greatly  decreased  the  gains  of  the  pigs 
but  •  also  greatly  modified  the  composition  of  their  bodies.  As  a 
rule,  the  pigs  getting  only  corn  had  a  smaller  amount  of  blood  and 
smaller  livers  and  other  internal  organs  per  100  lbs.  of  carcass  than 
did  those  fed  the  rations  containing  ample  protein  and  mineral  mat- 
ter. The  bones  of  the  corn-fed  pigs  were  also  abnormally  weak.  In 
the  first  Wisconsin  trial  their  thigh  bones  broke  at  an  average  pres- 
sure of  380  lbs.  for  each  100  lbs.  of  carcass,  while  those  fed  milk,  dried 

TMo.  Bills.  10,  14,  19.  8  Wis.  Rpts.  1886,  '87,  '88,  '89. 


72  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

blood,  and  middlings  broke  at  about  500  lbs. — a  difference  of  32  per  ct. 
in  favor  of  the  rations  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter.  The  pigs 
given  the  protein-rich  feeds  had  nearly  30  per  ct.  more  blood  for 
each  100  lbs.  of  carcass  than  those  fed  corn  alone,  and  their  livers, 
kidneys,  and  tenderloin  muscles  were  also  larger,  showing  that  a  supe- 
rior muscular  development  was  associated  with  the  larger  internal 
organs,  more  blood,  etc.  The  carcasses  of  the  corn-fed  pigs,  on  the 
other  hand,  contained  a  greater  proportion  of  fat. 


Fig.  20. — ^PiGS  Fed  Corn  Alone  Do  Not  Develop  Normal  Carcasses 

Upper  TOW,  cross  sections  of  carcasses  of  pigs  fed  for  lean;  i.  e.,  on  well-bal- 
anced ration,  by  the  senior  autlior  at  the  Wisconsin  Station.  Left,  section  at 
shoulder;  middle,  section  between  fifth  and  sixth  ribs;  right,  section  at  loins. 
Lower  row,  carcasses  of  pigs  fed  corn  alone.  Note  larger  size  of  muscles  of  pigs 
fed  well-balanced  ration. 

These  experiments  show  the  plastic  nature  of  the  bodies  of  young, 
growing  animals.  Immature  animals  living  on  such  unsuitable  food 
may  survive  for  a  long  time,  but  they  develop  bodies  that  are  dwarfed 
in  size  and  made  unnaturally  fat.  Nature's  plan  is  first  to  grow  the 
body  framework  and  afterwards  to  lay  on  the  fat,  if  food  be  abundant. 
The  experiments  point  to  the  reasonable,  important,  and  far-reaching 
conclusion  that  if  a  pig  or  other  young  animal  is  improperly  fed  so  as 
to  injure  its  bones,  muscles,  and  vital  organs  even  a  very  little,  and 


GROWTH  AND  FATTENING  73 

the  process  is  repeated  during  several  generations,  the  effects  will  be- 
come marked  and  permanently  injurious.  The  practical  lesson  is 
taught  that  young  animals  should  be  fed  a  combination  of  feeding 
stuffs  that  will  allow  normal  growth.  This  calls  for  a  ration  con- 
taining crude  protein  and  mineral  matter  not  only  in  ample  amount, 
but  also  of  suitable  composition  for  the  rapid  formation  of  body  tis- 
sues. When  growth  is  completed,  the  food  supply  may  then  consist 
largely  of  carbohydrates  and  fat,  which  are  the  cheap  and  abundant 
sources  of  animal  fat. 

Growth  under  adverse  conditions. — Extensive  experiments  carried 
on  at  the  j\Iissouri ''  and  Kansas  ^"^  Stations  are  of  much  interest  in 
showing  what  happens  when  young  animals  are  fed  only  enough  feed 
to  maintain  their  weights.  Due  to  the  impulse  toward  growth,  young 
steers  fed  scanty  rations  continued  to  grow  in  height,  tho  not  gaining 
in  weight.  In  this  effort  the  fat  stored  in  the  body  was  withdrawn 
and  used  up  as  body  fuel,  the  animals  becoming  thin  in  flesh  as  the 
scanty  feeding  progressed. 

For  70  to  120  days,  depending  on  how  vigorous  they  were  and  how 
much  fat  they  carried,  young  steers  fed  only  enough  to  maintain  their 
weight  gained  as  rapidly  in  height  as  others  on  full  feed.  After  this 
period  the  increase  in  height  became  less  rapid,  ceasing  altogether  in 
from  6  months  to  a  year  and  half,  by  which  time  the  animals  had  be- 
come quite  thin  and  had  burned  up  all  the  fat  in  their  bodies  which 
was  not  absolutely  necessary  to  life.  Growth  on  scanty  rations  is  not 
due  directly  to  the  fat  re-absorbed  from  the  body.  The  animal  burns 
its  stored  fat  to  support  the  body,  and  the  scanty  protein  supply  in  its 
food  is  used  for  building  body  tissue. 

As  a  result  of  these  studies  Waters  of  the  Kansas  Station  points 
out  that  a  young  animal  may  reach  normal  size  by  any  or  all  of  the 
following  ways: 

1.  By  growing  steadily  from  birth  to  maturity. 

2.  By  storing  fat  during  a  period  of  abundant  food  supply,  which 
will  help  to  tide  over  a  limited  period  of  sparse  food  supply  without 
serious  checking  of  growth. 

3.  By  prolonging  the  growth  period. 

4.  By  an  increase  in  the  rate  of  growth  during  a  period  of  liberal 
feeding  following  a  period  of  scanty  feeding  and  low^  gain. 

5.  By  using  its  food  more  efficiently.  Apparently  when  an  animal 
is  kept  for  a  long  period  on  scanty  food,  it  gets  on  a  more  economical 
basis  than  when  liberally  fed.     A  ration  which  is  at  first  insufficient 

9  Waters   and   Trowbridge,   Proc.   Prom.    Agr.    Sci.    1908;    information   to   the 
authors. 
10  Waters,  Cochel,  and  Vestal,  Kansas  Industrialist,  May   10,   1913;    Apr.    18, 
1914;  and  information  to  the  authors. 


74 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


to  maintain  an  animal  may  be  capable  later  of  keeping  the  same  animal 
at  a  constant  body  weight,  and  still  later  of  causing  a  small  gain. 

Effects   of  checking  growth. — Numerous  experiments  have   been 
carried  on  at  the  Kansas  Station  to  determine  the  effect  on  the  later 


Medium  Ration 

IT 


GROWTH  OF  STEERS 
Full  Rations 


Scant  Rations 


Fig.  21. — Scant  Feeding  Stunts  Growing  Animals 


Tlie  steer  in  the  middle  row  of  pictures,  fed  a  full  ration,  weijjlied  1,!)05  lbs.  at 
47  months.  The  steer  at  the  left,  fed  a  medium  ration,  weijihed  only  1,224  ll)s.. 
and  the  one  at  the  right,  fed  a  scant  ration,  but  1,042  lbs.  Note  the' stunted  ap- 
pearance  of  the  latter  steers  at  the  end  of  the  trial.      (From  Missouri  Station.) 

development  of  pure-bred  beef  steers  of  checking  their  growth  by 
under-feeding.  It  was  found  that  supplying  a  young,  growing  ani- 
mal with  a  scant  ration  for  only  a  short  period  will  have  no  perma- 
nent effect  on  its  development.     Even  when  insufficient  feeding  is 


GROWTH  AND  FATTENING 


75 


continued  for  a  year  or  longer,  the  animal  will  recover  to  a  surprising 
extent  when  placed  on  liberal  feed,  making  unusually  rapid  and 
economical  gains. 

However,  while  a  steer  whose  growth  has  been  checked  for  a  year 
or  more  may  grow  nearly  as  tall  as  one  always  well  fed,  it  is  almost 
certain  to  have  a  smaller  digestive  capacity,  narrower  hips,  flatter 
ribs,  heavier  shoulders,  and  lighter  hind  quarters,  even  when  well 
fattened.  The  blocky  form  of  the  highly  developed  beef  animal  has 
evidently  been  caused  by  broadening  the  animal  thru  liberal  feeding 
while  young.     If  the  feed  is  insufficient  to  distend  the  digestive  tract 


i/.i  Mo.  i-/ Mo.  ^^ Mo. 

Fig.  22. — Round  Steaks  from  Steers  Variously  Fed 

Left,  from  steers  fed  medium  ration;  middle,  from  steers  fed  full  ration; 
right,  from  steers  fed  scant  ration.  Xote  large  size  and  well-marbled  appear- 
ance of  muscles  from  the  full-fed  steers  and  the  scarcity  of  fat  in  the  meat  from 
tlie  steers  fed  the  scant  ration.      (From  IMissouri  Station.) 

and  force  out  the  ribs  and  hips  while  the  body  is  yet  plastic,  then  the 
animal  will  never  later  reach  the  desired  conformation  of  the  true 
beef  type. 

These  studies  on  growth  are  highly  significant  to  the  stockman. 
They  show  that  under  certain  conditions  it  may  be  profitable  to  carry 
growing  animals  thru  the  winter  on  roughages  alone,  even  tho  they 
lose  slightly  in  weight,  for  on  a  return  to  good  pasture,  animals  in 
spare  but  thrifty  condition  make  exceedingly  economical  gains.  How- 
ever, the  breeder  of  any  class  of  stock  who  seeks  to  develop  his  animals 
toward  an  ideal  must  supply  ample  feed  during  the  whole  growth 
period. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  do  the  requirements  for  growing  animals  differ  from  those  for  main- 
taining mature  animals? 

2.  Show  by  an  example'  why  the  protein  supply  for  growth  must  be  not  only 
ample  in  quantity  but  also  of  the  right  quality. 


76  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

3.  What  is  the  effect  of  feeding  rations  deficient  in  mineral  matter  to  growing 
animals? 

4.  Compare  the  economy  with  which  yovmg  animals  and  mature  ones  use  their 
food. 

5.  What  is  the  object  of  fattening  meat  producing  animals? 

6.  What  is  the  composition  of  tlie  gains  during  fattening? 

7.  From  what  materials  may  body  fat  be  formed? 

8.  Discuss  tlie  food  requirements  of  fattening  animals? 
n.  What  factors   influence   fattening? 

10.  Name  the  various  farm  animals  in  the  order  of  their  efficiency  in  making 
human  food. 

11.  Describe  the  efTects  of  feeding  pigs  corn  alone. 

12.  What  are  the  effects  of  supplying  scanty  rations  to  growing  animals? 


CHAPTER  VI 

PRODUCTION  OF  WORK,  MILK,  AND  WOOL 

I.     Production  of  Work 

It  has  long  been  known  that  muscular  exertion  or  external  body 
work  greatly  increases  the  amount  of  food  material  broken  down  in 
the  body,  but  scientists  have  disagreed  as  to  whether  one  or  all  of  the 
nutrients — protein,  carbohydrates,  or  fat — furnishes  the  energy. 

The  source  of  muscular  energy. — By  painstaking  trials  it  was  fi- 
nally proved  that  all  the  organic  nutrients,  not  only  the  carbohy- 
drates and  fats,  but  also  the  proteins  and  apparently  the  pentosans, 
may  serve  as  sources  of  muscular  work.  Under  normal  conditions, 
the  carbohydrates  and  fats  of  the  food  are  first  drawn  upon,  no  more 
protein  being  broken  down  than  during  rest.  Should. these  not  fur- 
nish enough  energy  for  the  work,  the  body  fat  is  next  used.  If  this 
is  still  insufficient  or  is  much  diminished  by  continued  work,  then, 
as  the  last  resort,  the  muscles  or  other  protein  tissues  will  be  called 
upon  for  the  needed  energy. 

Production  of  muscular  energy. — AVe  know  that  in  doing  work  the 
muscles  of  the  body  contract,  that  is,  become  shorter  and  thicker. 
However,  we  do  not  yet  understand  in  just  what  manner  the  energy 
of  the  nutrients  is  converted  into  the  energy  of  muscular  action,  tho 
we  do  know  some  of  the  processes  which  take  place  in  the  working 
muscles. 

In  some  marvelous  manner  the  nutrients  are  suddenly  broken  down 
in  the  cells  of  the  muscles,  and  part  of  the  energy  they  contain  is 
changed  into  mechanical  work,  while  another  part  is  set  free  as  heat. 
In  this  change  oxygen  is  taken  up  from  the  blood  and  carbon  dioxid 
is  given  off,  just  as  occurs  when  fuel  is  burned.  The  production  of 
mechanical  energy  in  the  muscles  is  in  a  way  similar  to  the  production 
of  power  by  a  gasoline  engine,  where  the  fuel  undergoes  such  a  rapid 
breaking  down  that  it  becomes  an  explosion.  As  in  the  muscle,  part 
of  the  energy  of  the  fuel  is  turned  into  useful  work  and  part  is  set 
free  as  heat.     This  latter  part  yields  no  useful  work. 

During  rest,  glycogen,  or  animal  starch,  is  stored  in  the  muscles, 
forming  from  0.5  to  0.9  per  ct.  of  the  weight  of  well-nourished  muscle 
when  resting.  A  smaller  amount  of  glucose  is  also  stored  in  the 
muscles.     ]\Iost  of  the  energy  produced  in  work  is  doubtless  formed 

77 


78 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


thru  the  oxidation  of  these  two  carbohydrates.  Tho  the  supply  in  the 
body  tissues  at  any  one  time  is  small,  glucose  is  continuously  being 
formed  from  the  food  nutrients  or  body  tissues,  to  replace  that  used 
up  during  work. 

The  animal  as  a  machine. — Numerous  experiments  have  shown  that 
animals  at  moderate  work  can  convert  into  external  work  from  29  to 
37  per  ct.  of  the  total  energy  expended.     On  the  average,  about  one- 


FiG.  23. — The  Muscular  System  of  the  Horse 

The  work  done  yearly  in  this  country  by  horses  and  mules  is  worth  over  $2,- 
000,000,000.      (From  Eilenberger.) 

third  of  the  energy  used  by  men  or  animals  in  muscular  exertion  is 
recovered  as  useful  work.  The  rest  takes  the  form  of  heat  within  the 
body,  and  is  lost  so  far  as  the  production  of  work  is  concerned.  These 
figures  do  not  take  into  account  the  energy  lost  in  the  excreta,  that 
expended  for  digestion  and  assimilation,  or  that  used  in  maintaining 
the  body  when  at  rest.  Allowing  for  all  of  these,  a  man  actually  con- 
verts about  20  per  ct.  of  the  fuel  of  his  food  into  external  work.  The 
best  steam  engines  have  about  the  same  efficiency,  w'hile  the  average 


PRODUCTION  OF  WORK,  MILK  AND  WOOL  79 

engine  falls  below  10  per  ct.  Gasoline  engines  range  in  efficiency 
from  10  to  27  per  ct.  Thus,  as  a  mere  machine  for  mechanical  work 
the  animal  body  compares  favorably  with  the  best  modern  engines. 
In  addition  to  performing  external  work,  the  body  must  prepare  and 
transport  its  own  fuel,  store  it  until  needed,  make  all  repairs,  and 
maintain  a  definite  temperature,  as  well  as  direct,  move,  and  control 
itself.  When  all  these  functions  are  considered,  the  marvelous  per- 
fection of  the  animal  body  as  a  machine  becomes  apparent. 

By  processes  still  unknown  the  animal  body  produces  heat,  light, 
electricity,  and  muscular  energy  with  an  efficiency  greater  than  any 
machine  made  by  man.  With  animals  the  fuel  is  burned  at  low  tem- 
peratures. The  glow  worm  and  fire  fly  produce  light  without  sensible 
loss  of  heat  or  other  energy,  and  the  torpedo  fish  and  electric  eel  gen- 
erate electricity  by  means  unknown.  Such  mysterious  and  wonderful 
processes  which  continuously  occur  in  the  animal  body  baffle  scientists 
and  inventors  alike. 

Factors  influencing  energy  required  for  work. — The  amount  of 
energy  required  to  produce  a  given  amount  of  useful  work  depends 
upon  many  factors.  Practice  in  doing  a  certain  kind  of  work  lessens 
the  amount  of  energy  expended.  In  one  instance,  training  for  two 
weeks  decreased  by  over  20  per  ct.  the  energy  used  b}^  a  man  climbing 
a  tower.  On  the  other  hand,  fatigue  greatly  increases  the  energy 
required  to  do  a  given  task.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  with 
increasing  fatigue  the  muscles  normally  used,  and  which  are  tlms  most 
efficient  in  performing  the  given  work,  are  put  out  of  use.  Then  other 
less  used  muscles  are  called  upon  to  a  constantly  increasing  degree, 
and  these  cannot  perform  the  work  so  economically.  Increasing  the 
speed  at  which  the  work  is  done  also  lessens  the  efficiency  with  which 
it  is  performed.  Tliis  is  because  the  work  of  the  heart  is  increased, 
the  body  temperature  rises,  and  much  heat  is  lost  by  the  evaporation 
of  water  thru  the  skin  and  lungs.  This  decreases  the  amount  of  work 
which  a  given  quantity  of  feed  will  produce. 

The  part  of  the  expended  energy  appearing  in  useful  work  varies 
with  the  build  of  the  animal,  the  development  of  its  muscles,  and  the 
structure  of  its  limbs.  For  example,  a  lame  horse  may  use  nearly 
twice  as  much  energy  in  traveling  a  certain  distance  as  one  with  sound 
legs.  An  animal  which  is  able  to  perform  one  kind  of  work  most 
economically  may  have  to  expend  undue  energy  at  other  kinds  of 
work.  Thus,  horses  bred  for  generations  to  the  saddle  can  carry  the 
rider  with  a  smaller  expenditure  of  energy  than  those  whose  breed- 
ing and  form  specially  fit  them  for  draft  purposes. 

Additional  discussions  of  the  factors  influencing  the  production  of 
work,  as  applied  to  horses,  are  given  in  Chapter  XVIII. 


80 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


II.     Pkoduction  op  Milk 

Secretion  of  milk. — ]\Iilk,  the  marvelous  fluid  designed  by  Nature 
for  the  nourishment  of  the  young  of  all  mammals,  is  secreted  by  special 
organs,  called  the  mammary  glands.  Scientists  disagree  as  to  the 
exact  process  by  which  the  milk  is  formed  in  the  small,  sac-like  bodies, 
known  as  alveoli,  in  the  udder.  However,  we  do  know  that  the  blood, 
laden  with  nutrients,  is  brought  by  the  capillaries  of  the  udder  to 
these  alveoli.  The  nutrients  then  pass  thru  the  walls  of  the  capillaries 
into  the  alveoli.     There,  by  one  of  Nature's  wonderful  processes,  they 

are  converted  into  milk, 
which  differs  entirely 
in  composition  from 
the  blood  whence  it 
originates.  The  chief 
proteins  of  milk — 
casein  and  milk  albu- 
min— differ  from  all 
other  proteins  of  the 
body,  and  the  milk  fat 
likewise  has  entirely 
different  properties 
from  the  body  fat  of 
the  same  animal.  IMilk 
sugar,  the  carbohy- 
drate of  milk,  is  found 
nowhere  else  in  the 
body.  While  the  blood  contains  much  more  potassium  than  sodium, 
in  milk  the  sodium  predominates. 

From  the  alveoli  the  milk  passes  into  the  network  of  milk  ducts. 
In  some  animals  the  large  milk  ducts  open  directly  on  the  surface  of 
the  teat,  but  in  others,  including  the  cow,  they  open  into  a  small  cavity, 
called  the  milk  cistern,  which  is  just  above  the  teat.  Most  of  the  milk 
yielded  at  one  milking  is  secreted  during  the  milking  process,  for  the 
udder  has  room  for  the  storage  of  but  a  small  part  of  the  total  product. 
Tho  the  secretion  of  milk  is  involuntary  and  cannot  be  prevented 
by  the  animal,  any  more  than  can  breathing  or  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  the  flow  may  be  reduced  by  nervousness  caused  by  fright,  an 
unfamiliar  attendant,  or  other  unusual  circumstance.  The  animal 
has  considerable  power  to  "hold  up"  the  milk  already  secreted  in  the 
udder,  by  contracting  the  ring  of  muscle  which  partially  separates 
the  milk  cistern  from  the  teat,  and  similar  muscles  guarding  the  milk 
ducts. 


Fig.  24. — Mammary  Gland  of  Cow 

Small  portion  of 
alveoli,  in  which  mill 
c,  larger  milk  duct. 


gland,  greatly  magnified.  A, 
is  secreted:  b,  small  milk  duct; 
(After  Klein.) 


PRODUCTION  OF  WORK,  MILK  AND  WOOL  81 

Source  of  fat  in  milk.— For  many  years  it  was  believed  that  the 
cow  could  form  the  fat  of  milk  only  from  the  fat  in  her  food.  This 
was  disproved  in  an  ingenious  experiment  at  the  New  York  (Geneva) 
Station.^  For  over  3  months  a  cow  was  fed  on  hay,  cornmeal,  and 
oats,  from  which  the  fat  had  been  extracted  by  naphtha,  as  is  done  in 
one  method  of  extracting  the  oil  from  flax  seed.  During  this  time 
the  cow  received  only  5.7  lbs.  digestible  fat  in  her  feed,  but  yielded 
62.9  lbs,  of  fat  in  her  milk.  She  was  fatter  at  the  end  of  the  trial 
than  at  the  beginning  and  so  could  not  have  converted  her  body  fat 
into  milk  fat.  From  the  amount  of  digestible  protein  in  her  feed,  it 
was  computed  that  not  over  17  lbs.  of  the  milk  fat  could  possibly  have 
come  from  the  food  protein.  Thus,  the  larger  part  of  the  fat  must 
have  been  formed  from  the  carbohydrates  of  the  feed. 

Nutrients  required  for  milk  production.— A  study  of  the  nutrients 
the  cow  yields  in  her  milk  will  aid  in  showing  the  kind  and  amount  of 
nutrients  her  ration  should  furnish.  A  dairy  cow  of  no  unusual 
ability  should  yield  annually  8,000  lbs.  of  milk  of  average  quality. 
Taking  the  composition  shown  in  a  previous  table  (Page  64),  we  find 
that  she  will  produce  in  her  milk  272  lbs.  of  protein,  296  lbs.  of  fat, 
392  lbs.  of  milk  sugar,  and  56  lbs.  of  mineral  matter.  This  is  56  per 
ct,  more  protein,  30  per  ct.  more  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  (fat  and 
carbohydrates),  and  19  per  ct.  more  mineral  matter  than  is  contained 
in  the  entire  body  of  a  fat  2-year-old  steer  weighing  1,200  lbs. 

Thus,  each  year  the  cow  yields  more  protein  and  mineral  matter 
than  has  been  built  into  the  body  of  the  steer  during  its  life.  At  the 
same  time  she  may  be  storing  considerable  protein  and  mineral  matter 
in  the  developing  body  of  her  unborn  calf.  It  is  therefore  evident 
that,  far  different  from  the  requirements  of  the  mature  horse  at  work 
or  of  a  mature  fattening  animal,  the  cow  needs  a  liberal  supply  of 
protein  and  mineral  matter.  Just  as  in  the  case  of  growing  animals, 
this  must  not  only  be  ample  in  quantity,  but  also  of  the  proper  kind  or 
quality.  Furthermore,  the  high-producing  cow  is  working  just  as 
truly  as  the  horse  pulling  a  load,  and  hence  needs  a  liberal  supply  of 
concentrates  rich  in  net  energy.  Energy  used  up  in  the  mastication, 
digestion,  and  assimilation  of  such  feeds  as  straw  takes  the  form  of 
internal  heat  and  is  of  no  value  for  the  formation  of  milk. 

Since  most  of  the  scientific  studies  of  the  factors  influencing  the 
production  of  milk  have  been  conducted  with  the  dairy  cow,  the  dis- 
cussion of  milk  production  by  that  animal  is  continued  in  Chapters 
XX  and  XXI.  The  requirements  of  the  mare,  ewe,  and  sow  for  the 
production  of  milk  are  also  treated  in  the  respective  chapters  of 
Part  III. 

1  Jordan  and  Jenter,  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Bui.  132. 


82 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


III.    Wool  Production 

Composition  of  wool. — Aside  from  moisture  and  dirt,  "wool"  is 
made  up  of  pure  wool  fiber  and  yolk,  the  latter  including  the  suint  and 
the  wool  fat.  The  wool  fiber  is  practicallj^  pure  protein,  and  is  of  the 
same  chemical  composition  as  ordinary  hair,  but  differs  in  being 
covered  with  minute  overlapping  scales.  The  suint, 
chiefly  composed  of  compounds  of  potassium  with 
organic  acids,  comprises  from  15  to  over  50  per  ct. 
of  the  unwashed  fleece,  being  especially  high  in  the 
Merino  breed.  As  suint  is  soluble  in  water,  most 
of  it  is  removed  by  washing  the  unshorn  sheep  or 
the  fleece,  and  less  is  present  in  the  wool  of  sheep 
exposed  to  the  weather.  The  fat,  often  incorrectly 
lalled  yolk,  is  a  complex  mixture  of  fatty  sub- 
stances, insoluble  in  water,  and  may  make  up  from 
S  to  30  per  ct.  of  the  weight  of  a  washed  fleece. 

Requirements  for  wool  production. — Owing  to 
tlie  large  amount  of  j)rotein  stored  by  sheep  in  their 
tleeces,  their  rations  should  contain  somewhat  more 
protein  than  rations  for  cattle  or  swine  at  the  same 
stage  of  maturity.  This  is  taken  into  consideration 
in  the  various  feeding  standards  for  the  different 
classes  of  animals.  (See  Appendix  Tables  IV  and 
V.)  With  ewes  which  are  either  pregnant  or  suck- 
ling lambs,  there  is  a  double  demand  for  food  pro- 
tein, which  makes  a  liberal  supply  especially  ad- 
visable. 

When  sheep  are  fed  insufficient  food  to  maintain 
their  weight,  the  yield  of  wool  is  considerably  di- 
minished. On  the  other  hand,  the  production  of 
wool  fiber  and  wool  fat  is  practically  no  greater 
when  a  full-grown  sheep  receives  a  liberal  fatten- 
ing ration  than  when  it  is  maintained  in  ordinary  condition.  Feeding 
lambs  liberally  produces  a  larger  body  and  consequently  a  heavier 
fleece. 

The  strength  of  the  wool  fiber  is  dependent  on  the  breed,  the  quality 
of  the  individual  sheep,  and  the  conditions  under  which  they  are 
raised.  Conditions  which  check  the  growth  of  the  wool,  such  as  insuffi- 
cient feed,  undue  exposure,  or  sickness,  will  produce  a  weak  spot  in 
the  fiber.  The  feed  and  care  for  the  flock  should  therefore  be  liberal 
and  as  uniform  as  possible. 


Fig.  25.— Wool 
Fibers 

Appearance  of 
fibers,  greatly  mag- 
nified, after  dirt 
and  yolk  have  been 
removed.  Left, 
fiber  of  jMerino 
wool;  right,  fiber 
of  Down  wool. 
Note  the  overlap- 
ping scales  cover- 
ing the  fibers. 


PRODUCTION  OF  WORK,  MILK  AND  WOOL  83 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  source  of  muscular  energy? 

2.  Tell  wliat  is  known  about  the  way  muscular  energy  is  produced. 

3.  How  do  animals   compare  with   engines  in  the  efficiency   with  which   they 
perform    work  ? 

4.  Discuss  the  effects  of  speed,  training,  fatigue,  and  build  of  animal  on   the 
economy  with  which  work  is  produced. 

5.  What  is  known  about  milk  secretion? 

6.  How  has  it  been  shown  that  milk  fat  may  be  formed  from  the  carbohydrates 
of  the  feed? 

7.  Wliat  are  the  food  requirements  of  cows  in  milk? 

8.  Of  what  is  wool  composed? 

9.  Why  should  sheep  be  fed  a  larger  proportion  of  protein  than  beef  cattle  or 
pigs? 

10.  In  what  manner  does  the  feed  influence  the  quantity  and  quality  of  wool? 


CHAPTER  VII 

FEEDING  STANDARDS— CALCULATING  RATIONS 

I.     Early  Feeding  Standards 

To  guide  the  farmer  in  selecting  rations  for  his  stock,  scientists 
have  drawn  up  feeding  standards.  These  are  tables  showing  the 
amounts  of  each  class  of  nutrients  which,  it  is  believed,  should  be  pro- 
vided for  farm  animals  of  the  various  ages  and  classes  for  the  best 
results. 

Early  feeding  standards. — At  the  beginning  of  the  last  century 
almost  nothing  was  known  about  the  chemistry  of  plants  and  animals, 
and  the  farmer  gave  his  stock  hay  and  grain  without  knowing  what 
there  was  in  this  feed  that  nourished  them.  In  1859,  when  chemistry 
had  thrown  some  light  on  the  composition  of  feeds,  Grouven,  in  Ger- 
many, proposed  the  first  feeding  standard  for  farm  animals.  This 
was,  however,  very  imperfect,  for  it  was  based  not  on  the  amount  of 
digestible  nutrients  required,  but  on  the  total  crude  protein,  carbo- 
hydrates, and  fat  in  feeding  stuffs. 

In  1864  Wolff,  a  famous  German  scientist,  presented  the  first  table 
of  feeding  standards  based  on  the  digestible  nutrients  contained  in 
feeds.  These  set  forth  the  amounts  of  digestible  crude  protein,  carbo- 
hydrates, and  fat  required  daily  by  the  different  classes  of  farm 
animals.  The  Wolff  standards  were  brought  to  the  attention  of 
American  farmers  10  years  later  and  were  further  introduced  by 
Armsby's  ''Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding,"  which  appeared  in  1880. 
The  value  and  importance  of  these  standards  were  soon  recognized 
and  with  their  adoption  came  the  first  wide-spread  effort  toward  the 
rational  feeding  of  farm  animals.  In  1896  the  Wolff  standards  were 
modified  by  Lehmann,  as  scientific  trials  had  then  thrown  further 
light  on  stock  feeding. 

The  numerous  feeding  experiments  which  have  been  carried  on  since 
the  Wolff -Lehmann  standards  were  presented  have  given  us  more  com- 
plete knowledge  of  the  nutrients  required  by  the  various  classes  of  farm 
animals  than  was  possessed  by  these  pioneers  in  the  field  of  animal 
nutrition.  Naturally  such  results  show  that  these  early  standards 
are  in  some  respects  inaccurate.  Taking  these  facts  into  considera- 
tion, later  scientists  have  drawn  up  other  standards  which  are  pre- 

84 


FEEDING  STANDARDS— CALCULATING  RATIONS 


85 


sented  later  in  this  chapter.  The  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  are,  how- 
ever, briefly  explained  first  on  account  of  their  historical  and  founda- 
tional importance. 

The  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  are  given  in  full  in  Appendix 
Table  IV.  From  this  the  following  examples  are  taken  for  purposes  of 
study : 

Digestible  nutrients  required  daily  per  1,000  lbs.  live  ireight 


Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Nutri- 

Animal 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

tive 
ratio 

Ox,  at  rest 

Lbs. 
18 
30 
29 
24 

Lbs. 

0.7 
2.5 

2.5 
2.0 

Lbs. 
8.0 
15.0 
13.0 
11.0 

Lbs. 

0.1 

0.5 

0.5 

0.6 

1:11.8 

Fattening  cattle,  1st  period.  . 
Cow,  yielding  22  lbs.  milk.  .  . 
Horse,  at  medium  work   .... 

1:    6.5 
1:    5.7 
1:    6.2 

The  table  shows  that  according  to  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  a 
1,000-lb.  ox  at  rest,  neither  gaining  nor  losing  in  weight,  requires 
for  1  day's  maintenance  18  lbs.  of  dry  matter  containing  the  follow- 
ing digestible  nutrients:  0.7  lb.  crude  protein,  8.0  lbs.  carbohydrates, 
and  0.1  lb.  fat,  with  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :11.8.  When  the  animal  is 
growing,  fattening,  giving  milk,  or  doing  external  work,  a  larger 
quantity  of  nutrients  must  be  supplied  than  for  maintenance,  as  the 
table  shows. 

Careful  experiments  carried  on  since  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards 
were  proposed  have  conclusively  shown  that  dairy  cows,  work  horses, 
and  fattening  cattle,  sheep,  and  pigs  all  need  considerably  less  crude 
protein  than  is  recommended  in  these  standard.  As  protein-rich  feeds 
are  usually  the  highest  in  price  over  much  of  our  country,  following 
these  standards  is  frequently  decidedly  uneconomical.  The  authors 
have  therefore  drawn  up  the  "Modified  Wolff-Lehmann  standards," 
which  are  discussed  later  in  this  chapter  and  given  in  Appendix 
Table  V.  As  these  are  based  upon  the  many  feeding  trials  carried 
on  in  recent  years,  they  furnish  more  accurate  information  on  the 
requirements  of  farm  animals  than  the  original  standards. 

Altho  it  is  advisable  in  the  actual  feeding  of  stock  to  follow  one  of 
the  more  recent  feeding  standards  described  later  in  this  chapter,  both 
students  and  stockmen  should,  first  of  all,  familiarize  themselves  with 
the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  because  of  their  historical  interest  and 
the  great  help  they  have  been  to  animal  husbandry  in  the  past.  Hav- 
ing considered  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards,  one  is  prepared  for  the 
study  of  other  more  accurate  standards  now  in  the  process  of  formation. 


86  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

II.     Calculating  Kations  for  Farm  Animals 

General  requirements  of  satisfactory  rations. — The  various  feeding 
standards  make  recommendations  only  in  regard  to  the  amounts  of 
dry  matter,  of  the  various  nutrients,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  Kelhier 
and  Armsby  standards,  of  the  net  energy  whicli  the  ration  should 
supply.  However,  the  following  highly  important  factors  should  also 
be  taken  into  account  in  computing  rations  for  farm  animals. 

Suitability  of  feeds. — The  feeds  selected  for  any  animal  should  be 
such  that  they  will  not  injure  its  health  or  the  quality  of  the  product 
yielded.     Feeds  which  are  suited  to  one  class  of  farm  animals  may 


Fig.  26. — A  ** Balanced"  Ration  Which  Is  Unsatisfactory  and 
Expensive 

This  ration  of  20  lbs.  timothy  hay,  2  lbs.  corn  meal,  5  lbs.  wheat  bran,  and 
2  lbs.  linseed  meal,  meets  the  standards  for  a  900-lb.  dairy  cow  yielding  20  lbs. 
of  5  per  ct.  milk.  However,  the  timothy  hay  is  not  palatable,  and  the  ration 
is  not  only  unsatisfactory  but  expensive.  Cost  26  cents.  ( From  Humphrey,  Wis- 
consin Station.) 

not  be  adapted  to  others.  Again,  a  given  feed  may  give  satisfactory 
results  only  when  combined  with  certain  other  feeds.  A  few  examples 
of  such  conditions  are  furnished  in  the  following:  Cottonseed  meal 
in  moderate  amount  is  an  excellent  feed  for  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses, 
yet  it  is  frequently  poisonous  to  pigs.  Timothy  hay,  the  standard 
roughage  for  horses,  is  unsatisfactory  for  dairy  cows,  and  may  cause 
serious  trouble  with  sheep  on  account  of  its  constipating  effect.  Feed- 
ing cows  a  heavy  allowance  of  ground  soybeans  produces  unduly  soft 
butter,  while  an  excess  of  cocoanut  meal  makes  the  butter  too  hard. 
It  is  often  highly  beneficial  to  add  wheat  bran  or  linseed  meal  to  the 
ration  because  o?  their  slightiv  laxative  effect.    When  animals  are 


FEEDING  STANDARDS— CALCULATING  RATIONS  87 

alreacV  receiving  laxative  feeds,  such  as  corn  silage,  pasture  grass,  and 
legume  liay,  the  use  of  bran  or  linseed  meal  may  be  unwise. 

In  computing  rations  one  should  therefore  always  learn  whether  the 
feeds  under  consideration  are  satisfactory  for  the  given  animals.  The 
value  and  suitability  of  all  important  feeds  for  the  various  classes  of 
stock  are  discussed  in  Part  II  of  this  book  and  more  detailed  informa- 
tion concerning  their  use  with  each  kind  of  stock  is  given  in  Part  III. 

Bulkiness  of  ration. — AVe  have  already  seen  in  Chapter  IV  that  at 
least  Avith  the  horse  and  with  young  ruminants  the  ration  must  contain 
some  roughage  to  distend  the  digestive  tract  properly.  Furthermore, 
for  the  best  results,  the  proportion  of  concentrates  and  roughages  in 


Fi(3.  27. — A  Ration  "Which  Is  Fair,  But  Lacks  Succulence 

This  ration  of  20  lbs.  red  clover  hay,  4  lbs.  corn  meal,  and  3  lbs.  oats  furnishes 
no  more  digestible  nutrients  tlian  the  previous  one,  but  will  give  better  results, 
because  tlie  clover  hay  is  more  palatable  to  cows  than  timothy  hay.  Cost  22 
cents.      (From  Humphrey,  Wisconsin  Station.) 

the  ration  should  be  regulated  according  to  the  kind  and  class  of  animal 
to  be  fed  and  the  results  desired.  Cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  can  be 
wintered  satisfactorily  on  roughages  alone,  if  of  suitable  quality,  and 
even  brood  sows  may  be  maintained  chiefly  on  legume  hay,  when  not 
suckling  their  young.  On  the  other  hand,  a  considerable  part  of  the 
rations  for  growing  and  fattening  animals  and  those  at  work  or  in 
milk  should  consist  of  concentrates.  To  fatten  animals  rapidly  con- 
siderably more  concentrates  must  be  fed  than  when  they  are  fattened 
more  slowly.  Similarly,  horses  at  hard  work  should  be  given  more 
grain  and  less  roughage  than  those  working  but  little. 


88         FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

The  present  feeding  standards  recognize  these  facts  in  the  amount  of 
dry  matter  they  prescribe  in  the  rations  for  the  different  classes  of 
animals.  Obviously,  when  the  requirement  of  digestible  nutrients  or 
of  net  energy  is  high  compared  with  the  total  amount  of  dry  matter 
advised,  the  proportion  of  concentrates  in  the  ration  must  be  large  to 
meet  the  standard.  On  the  other  hand,  for  the  mere  maintenance  of 
animals  the  standards  call  for  a  much  smaller  amount  of  digestible 
nutrients  or  of  net  energy  compared  with  the  amount  of  total  dry 
matter. 

In  computing  rations,  the  following  summary  is  helpful  in  showing 
the  proportion  of  concentrates  and  roughages  to  feed  the  various  classes 
of  animals : 

Mature  idle  horses  mid  mature  cattle  and  sheep  being  maintained  at  constant 
weight  may  be  fed  chiefly  or  entirely  on  roughage,  unless  it  is  of  poor  quality, 
when  some  grain  must  be  used. 

Horses  at  icork  should  be  given  2  to  3  lbs.  of  feed  (roughages  and  concentrates 
combined)  daily  per  100  lbs.  live  weight,  tlie  allowance  of  concentrates  ranging 
from  10  to  18  lbs.,  depending  on  the  severity  of  the  work. 

Dairy  cows  in  milk  should  be  fed  about  2  lbs.  of  dry  roughage  or  1  lb.  of  dry 
roughage  and  3  lbs.  of  silage  daily  per  100  lbs.  live  weight,  with  sufficient  con- 
centrates to  bring  the  nutrients  up  to  the  standard. 

Fattening  steers  need  2.1  lbs.  or  more  of  concentrates  and  dry  roughage  (or 
the  equivalent  in  silage)  daily  per  100  lbs.  live  weight,  the  allowance  of  con- 
centrates ranging  from  less  than  1  lb.  to  1.7  lbs.  or  more,  per  100  lbs.  live  weight, 
depending  on  the  rate  of  gain  desired  and  the  kind  of  roughage. 

Fattening  lambs  will  consume  about  1.4  lbs.  of  dry  roughage  daily  when  fed 
all  the  grain  they  will  eat,  and  up  to  2.3  lbs.  or  over  when  the  grain  allowance  is 
restricted.  Silage  may  replace  a  corresponding  amount  of  dry  matter  in  dry 
roughage. 

Pigs  can  make  but  limited  use  of  dry  roughage,  e.xcept  in  the  case  of  brood 
sows  not  suckling  young. 

Mineral  matter. — In  the  various  feeding  standards  no  statement  is 
made  as  to  the  amount  or  kind  of  mineral  matter  required  by  the 
different  classes  of  animals,  the  supposition  being  that  a  ration  which 
provides  the  proper  amount  of  protein  and  other  nutrients  will  also 
furnish  enough  mineral  matter.  In  some  cases,  especially  with  the 
pig,  the  mineral  supply  may  be  deficient  in  amount  or  unbalanced  in 
character  in  rations  which  meet  the  ordinary  standards.  In  computing 
rations  the  special  requirements  of  the  various  classes  of  animals,  as 
set  forth  in  the  preceding  chapters,  should  therefore  be  kept  in  mind. 

Palatability. — As  has  already  been  pointed  out  in  Chapter  IV,  the 
palatability  of  the  ration  is  an  important  factor  in  stimulating  diges- 
tion and  in  inducing  the  animal  to  consume  heavy  rations.  The  wise 
feeder  will  utilize  feeds  of  low  palatability  chiefly  for  such  animals  as 
are  being  merely  maintained,  and  will  feed  growing  and  fattening  ani- 


FEEDING  STANDARDS— CALCULATING  RATIONS  89 

mals,  milch  cows,  and  horses  at  hard  work  rations  made  up,  for  the 
most  part  at  least,  of  well-liked  feeds.  Some  concentrates,  such  as  malt 
sprouts  and  dried  distillers'  grains,  which  may  not  be  relished  when 
fed  alone,  are  entirely  satisfactory  if  given  in  mixture  with  other  bet- 
ter-liked feeds.  Similarly,  such  roughages  as  straw  and  marsh  hay, 
which  are  of  low  palatability,  may  be  given  in  limited  amount  even  to 


Fig.  28. — An  Excellent  and  Economical  Ration 


This  ration  of  30  lbs.  corn  silage,  10  lbs.  rod  clover  hay,  3  lbs.  corn  meal,  3 
lbs.  wheat  bran,  and  1  lb.  cottonseed  meal  furnishes  no  more  n\itrients,  yet  it  is 
much  superior  to  the  two  previous  ones,  for  the  feeds  are  all  palatable  and  suit- 
able for  dairy  cows,  and  the  silage  provides  succulence.  Cost  20  cents,  nearly  one- 
fourth  less  than  the  first  ration.      (From  Humphrey,  Wisconsin  Station.) 

animals  fed  for  production,  a  practice  widely  followed  by  European 
farmers.  While  the  largest  gains  are  made  on  rations  composed  en- 
tirely of  exceedingly  palatable  feeds,  it  should  be  remembered  that  one 
of  the  chief  functions  of  our  domestic  animals  is  to  consume  and  con- 
vert into  useful  products  materials  which  would  otherwise  be  wasted. 

Variety  of  feeds. — Skilled  feeders  usually  believe  that  a  ration  con- 
taining several  feeds  will  give  better  results  than  when  a  smaller  num- 
ber are  employed,  even  tho  the  latter  ration  supplies  the  proper  amount 
of  protein,  carbohydrates,  aiid  fat.  From  the  discussions  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapters,  in  which  it  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  protein  fur- 
nished by  certain  feeds  is  unbalanced  in  composition,  it  is  evident  that 
a  larger  variety  of  feeds  may,  by  the  law  of  chance,  furnish  a  better 
balanced  mixture  of  proteins  than  one  or  two  feeds  alone.  It  woi,ild 
therefore  seem  wise,  in  choosing  supplements  for  a  ration  low  in  pro- 
tein, to  select  those  which  will  supply  protein  from  different  sources. 
For  example,  it  is  injudicious,  if  other  supplements  are  equally  avail- 
able, to  use  corn  by-products,  such  as  corn  gluten  feed  or  gluten  meal, 
in  balancing  the  ration  of  pigs  otherwise  fed  corn  only. 

With  dairy  cows,  espeeiallj^  in  the  case  of  high-producing  animals 
being  forced  on  official  test,  skilled  feeders  place  emphasis  on  having 


90  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

variety  in  the  ration,  tho  this  does  not  imply  changes  in  the  ration  from 
day  to  day.  Indeed,  sudden  changes  in  kinds  of  feed  are  to  be  avoided. 
At  least  for  horses  and  fattening  animals,  a  simple  ration,  providing 
it  is  well-balanced  and  palatable,  is  as  satisfactory  as  one  containing  a 
large  variety  of  feeds.  For  example,  oats  and  timothy  hay  for  the 
horse,  and  corn  and  skim  milk  for  the  fattening  pig,  furnish  rations 
which  can  scarcely  be  improved  from  the  standpoint  of  production  and 
health,  tho  other  combinations  may  perhaps  be  cheaper. 

Cost  of  the  ration. — Most  important  of  all,  for  the  farmer  who 
depends  on  the  profits  from  his  stock  for  his  income,  is  the  cost  of  the 
ration.  In  devising  cheap,  yet  efficient  rations,  lies  a  great  opportunity 
for  exercising  foresight  and  business  judgment  on  every  farm  where 
animals  are  fed.  The  wise  farmer-feeder  will  consider  the  nutrient 
requirements  of  his  animals  in  planning  his  crop  rotations.  Thru  the 
use  of  grain  from  corn  or  the  sorghums,  combined  with  legume  hay  and 
such  cheap  succulence  as  corn  or  sorghum  silage,  it  is  possible  in  most 
sections  of  the  country  to  go  far  toward  solving  the  problem  of  pro- 
viding a  well-balanced,  economical  ration. 

Feeding  standards  only  approximate  guides. — In  Chapter  III  it 
has  been  shown  that  the  composition  of  a  given  feeding  stuff  is  not 
fixed,  but  is  materially  influenced  by  such  factors  as  climate,  stage  of 
maturity  when  harvested,  etc.  Furthermore,  individual  animals  differ 
in  their  ability  to  digest  and  utilize  their  feed.  It  should  therefore  be 
borne  in  mind  that  tables  of  digestible  nutrients  and  likewise  feeding 
standards  are  averages  and  approximations — something  quite  different 
from  the  multiplication  table.  While  feeding  standards  are  not  to  be 
followed  blindly,  they  are  exceedingly  valuable  guides  when  supple- 
mented by  business  judgment  and  a  practical  knowledge  of  feeds  and 
animals. 

The  allowance  of  protein  set  forth  in  the  various  standards  is  the 
minimum  recommended  by  the  scientists.  Where  protein-rich  feeds 
are  lower  in  price  than  those  carbonaceous  in  character,  as  is  alfalfa  in 
the  great  alfalfa  districts  of  the  West  and  cottonseed  meal  in  the  cotton 
belt,  it  is  often  economical  to  furnish  more  protein  than  called  for  by 
the  standards.  Except  with  very  young  animals,  it  is,  however,  not 
advisable  to  feed  rations  having  a  nutritive  ratio  narrower  than  1 : 4 
or  1 : 4.5.  Where  protein-rich  feeds  are  high  in  price  it  may  be  eco- 
nomical to  feed  a  wider  ration  than  advised  even  by  the  more  modern 
standards,  tho  it  is  rarely  wise  to  depart  far  from  them. 

Maintenance  ration  for  steers. — Having  discussed  the  general  fac- 
tors which  should  be  considered  in  computing  rations  for  farm  animals, 
let  us  now  calculate  the  feed  required,  according  to  the  Wolff-Lehmann 
standard,  to  maintain  a  1,000-lb.  ox  at  rest  in  his  stall  when  neither 


FEEDING  STANDARDS— CALCULATING  RATIONS 


91 


gaining  nor  losing  in  weight.  Since  mature  animals  can  be  main- 
tained largely  on  roughages,  let  us  see  how  nearly  field-cured  com 
stover  and  oat  straw  will  meet  the  requirements.  As  the  standard  calls 
for  18  lbs.  of  dry  matter,  we  will  first  try  quantities  of  these  feeds 
which  supply  slightly  less  than  this  amount. 

If  for  the  trial  ration  it  is  decided  to  feed  10  lbs.  of  com  stover  and 
10  lbs.  of  oat  straw  for  roughage,  then,  using  the  values  for  digestible 
nutrients  given  in  Appendix  Table  III,  the  calculations  for  dry  matter 
and  digestible  nutrients  would  be  as  given  below: 


Corn  stover,  field-cured 
In  100  In  10 

pounds  pounds 


Dry  matter   59.0  -f-  100  X  10  =  5.90 

Crude  protein   1.4  ^  100  X  10  =  O.U 

Carbohydrates     31.1  -^  100  X  10  =  3.11 

Fat  0.6  H-  100  X  10  =  0.06 


Oat  straw 
In  100  In  10 

pounds         pounds 

88.5 -^  100  X  10  =  8.85 
1.0 -^  100  X  10  =  0.10 

42.6 -f-  100  X  10  =  4.20 
0.9-^  100  X  10  =  0.09 


Arranging  these  results  in  tabular  form,  we  have : 

First  trial  ration  for  maintaining  IfiOO-lb.  ox  at  rest 


Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Nutri- 

Feeding  stuffs 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

tive 
ratio 

Corn  stover,  10  lbs 

Lbs. 
5.90 

8.85 

Lbs. 
0.14 
0.10 

Lbs. 
3.11 
4.26 

Lbs. 
0.06 
0.09 

Oat  straw,   10  lbs 

First  trial  ration    

Wolff- Lehmann    standard... 

14.75 
18.00 

0.24 
0.70 

7.37 
8.00 

0.15 
0.10 

1:32.2 
1:11.8 

Excess  or  deficit    

—3.25 

—0.46 

—0.63 

+0.05 

This  trial  ration  contains  only  about  one-third  the  digestible  crude 
protein  called  for  and  also  falls  below  the  standard  in  dry  matter  and 
carbohydrates.  To  improve  it  let  us  substitute  5  lbs.  of  clover  hay, 
which  is  high  in  protein,  for  the  same  weight  of  com  stover,  and  add 
0.5  lb.  of  protein-rich  linseed  meal.     We  then  have : 

Second  trial  ration  for  maintaining  1,000-lh.  ox  at  rest 


Dry 
matter 

Digestible  nutrients 

Nutri- 

Feeding stuffs 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

tive 
ratio 

Clover  hay,   5   lbs 

Lbs. 
4.36 
2.95 
8.85 
0.45 

Lbs. 
0.38 
0.07 
0.10 
0.15 

Lbs. 
1.96 
1.56 
4.26 
0.16 

Lbs. 
0.09 
0.03 
0.09 
0.03 

Oat  straw,  10  lbs 

Linseed  meal,  0.5  lb 

Second  trial  ration   

Wolff-Lehmann    standard .  .  . 

16.61 
18.00 

0.70 
0.70 

7.94 
8.00 

0.24 
0.10 

1:12.1 
1:11.8 

Excess  or  deficit    

—1.39 

0.0 

—0.06 

+  0.14 

92  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

This  ration  closely  approaches  the  standard.  It  falls  below  by  more 
than  1  lb.  of  dry  matter,  but  this  deficiency  is  unimportant.  The 
WolfiP-Lehmann  standards  were  devised  to  cover  the  common  systems 
of  feeding  in  Europe,  where  some  straw  or  other  low  grade  roughage  is 
commonly  included  in  rations  for  horses  and  ruminants.  AVhen  only 
such  high  grade  roughages  as  silage  and  legume  hay  are  used,  rations 
which  supply  enough  digestible  nutrients  will  fall  below  the  standard 
in  dry  matter.  If  the  ration  furnishes  sufficient  bulk  to  distend  the 
digestive  tract  properly,  no  further  attention  need  be  paid  to  such  a 
deficit.  The  excess  of  fat  in  this  case  will  more  than  make  up  the 
trifling  deficit  of  carbohydrates,  for  fat  has  2.25  times  the  heat  value  of 
carbohydrates.  The  nutritive  ratio  of  this  ration  is  1:12.1,  which  is 
close  to  the  standard.  American  rations  will  usually  furnish  an  excess 
of  fat  over  the  standard,  in  which  case  the  carbohydrates  may  fall 
somewhat  below,  as  an  offset. 


III.     The  Armsby  Net  Energy  Values  and  Feeding  Standards 

In  Chapter  III  it  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  total  quantity  of 
digestible  nutrients  in  a  feeding  stuff  is  not  theoretically  the  true 
measure  of  its  feeding  value,  as  is  assumed  in  the  Wolff-Lehmann 
feeding  standards.  Experiments  by  Kellner  and  Zuntz  in  Germany 
and  by  Armsby'  in  this  country  have  shown  that  to  find  the  true  net 
value  of  a  feed  for  production  it  is  necessary  to  deduct  from  the  total 
energy  furnished  by  the  digestible  nutrients  in  the  feed,  the  energy 
lost  in  the  urine  and  the  gases  produced  in  the  digestive  tract  and  that 
spent  in  the  work  of  mastication,  digestion,  and  assimilation. 

Net  energy  values. — Kellner  was  the  first  to  prepare  tables  showing 
the  net  energy  values  of  feeding  stuffs.  In  these  he  took  1  lb.  of 
digestible  starch  as  his  unit  and  expressed  the  net  energy  values  of 
different  feeds  in  terms  of  "starch  values."  He  then  drew  up  feedhig 
standards  based  on  these  starch  values,  which  are  now  quite  largely 
used  in  Germany.^  We  will  not  discuss  these  in  detail,  but  will  con- 
sider instead  Armsby 's  net  energy  values  and  feeding  standards,  which 
are  chiefly  used  in  this  country  by  those  desiring  to  compute  rations 
according  to  the  net  energy  system. 

Based  chiefly  on  Kellner 's  studies,  Armsby  has  drawn  up  a  table 
showing  the  net  energy  values  of  some  of  the  leading  American  feeds, 
expressed  in  therms,  and  also  giving  the  total  amount  of  dry  matter 
and  the  amount  of  digestible  true  protein  (not  digestible  crude  protein) 

1  For  Kellner's  starch  values  and  feeding  standards  see  liis  books,  Erniihrvng 
der  Land.  Nutztiere  and  Futterungslchre,  and  the  English  translation  of  tlie 
latter  book,  The  Scientific  Feeding  of  Animals. 


FEEDING  STANDARDS— CALCULATING  RATIONS  93 

in  the  various  feeds.     This  is  given  in  full  as  Appendix  Table  VII  of 
this  book. 

Of  all  the  cereals  listed,  it  is  shown  that  wheat  has  the  highest  net  en- 
ergy value,  91.82  therms  per  100  lbs.  Due  chiefly  to  the  large  amount 
of  fiber  contained  in  the  hulls,  the  net  energy  value  of  oats  is  only 
67.56  therms  per  100  lbs.  The  roughages,  which  are  high  in  fiber  and 
thus  require  much  energy  in  mastication  and  digestion,  furnish  much 
less  net  energy  than  the  concentrates.  Wheat  straw  is  the  lowest  in 
net  energy  of  the  dry  roughages  listed,  having  a  value  of  only  7.22 
therms  per  100  lbs. 

The  Armsby  feeding  standards. — Armsby  has  drawn  up  feeding 
standards,  based  on  his  net  energy  values,  for  maintaining  horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep,  for  growing  cattle  and  sheep,  for  milch  cows,  and  for 
fattening  cattle.  These  are  given  in  Appendix  Table  VIII,  together 
with  Kellner's  standard  for  work  horses,  converted  from  starch  values 
to  therms,  which  is  recommended  by  Armsby.  Armsby  has  presented 
no  standards  for  fattening  sheep  or  lambs,  for  growing  horses,  or  for 
pigs.  In  these  standards,  as  will  be  noted,  the  requirements  of  the 
various  classes  of  animals  are  expressed  in  terms  of  digestible  true 
protein  and  therms  of  net  energy. 

In  the  AVolff-Lehmann  standards  it  is  assumed  that  the  require- 
ments for  maintaining  animals  depend  on  the  live  weight,  the  standards 
giving  the  nutrients  required  per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight.  Armsby  in 
his  standards  recognized  the  fact  that  the  maintenance  requirements 
depend  not  strictly  on  body  weight  but  on  body  surface.  (See  Page 
52.)  He  therefore  gives  separate  figures  for  animals  of  various 
weights.  It  will  be  noted  that  for  maintaining  a  500-lb.  horse  0.6  lb. 
digestible  protein  and  4.4  therms  of  net  energy  are  required,  while  for 
a  1,000-lb.  horse  only  1.0  lb.  of  digestible  protein  and  7.0  therms  of  net 
energy  are  needed.  Tho  the  second  horse  weighs  twice  as  much,  it  does 
not  take  twice  as  much  feed  to  maintain  him. 

Bull  and  Emmett  of  the  Illinois  Station  ^  have  recently  made  a  com- 
prehensive study  of  the  American  investigations  in  fattening  lambs, 
and  have  presented  feeding  standards  based  thereon.  These  standards, 
which  are  given  with  the  Armsby  standards  in  Appendix  Table  VIII, 
are  similarly  expressed  in  therms  of  net  energy,  but  give  the  amount  of 
digestible  crude  protein  required,  instead  of  the  amount  of  digestible 
true  protein. 

Ration  for  maintaining  the  steer. — To  illustrate  the  method  of  using 
the  Armsby  standards  and  table  of  net  energy  values,  let  us  compute 
a  ration  for  maintaining  a  mature  steer  weighing  1,000  lbs.,  when 
neither  gaining  nor  losing  weight,  assuming  that  there  are  available 

2  111.  Bui.  166. 


94 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


corn  stover,  oat  straw,  dent  corn,  and  cottonseed  meal.  According  to 
the  standard,  an  animal  of  this  weight  requires  0.5  lb.  digestible  protein 
and  6.0  therms  of  net  energy.  As  corn  stover  and  oat  straw  are  much 
cheaper  than  the  concentrates,  let  us  first  see  how  nearly  a  ration  of 
these  roughages  alone  will  meet  the  requirements.  Suppose  that  we 
select  for  a  trial  ration  8  lbs.  of  oat  straw  and  10  lbs.  of  corn  stover. 
The  calculations  will  then  be  as  follows : 

Calculations  for  trial  ration  for  maintaining  1,000-lh.  steer 


Corn  stover 
In  100  lbs.  In  10  lbs. 


Oat  straw 
In  100  lbs.  In  8  lbs. 

Dry  matter    . .  .81.0  ^  100  X  10  =  8.10      Dry  matter 88..5  -f-  100  X  8  =  7.08 

Dig.    protein...    1.6^100X10  =  0.16       Dig.    protein 0.8^100X8  =  0.06 

Net    energy...  31.62 -MOO  X  10  =  3.16       Net    energy 34.81 -MOO  X  8  =  2.78 


First  trial  ration  for  maintaining  1,000-lh.  steer 

Feeding  stuffs 

Total 
dry  matter 

Digestible 
protein 

Net  energy 
value 

Corn  stover,  10  lbs 

Oat  straw,  8  lbs 

Lbs. 
8.10 
7.08 

Lbs. 
0.16 
0.06 

Therms 
3.16 

2.78 

First  trial  ration   

Standard  requirement    .  .  . 

15.18 

0.22 
0.50 

5.94 
G.OO 

Excess    or    deficit 

— 0.2S 

—0.06 

This  ration  furnishes  enough  net  energy  but  is  deficient  in  digestible 
protein.  Corn,  which  is  high  in  net  energy  but  low  in  protein,  will  not 
improve  the  ration,  while  cottonseed  meal,  which  is  rich  in  protein,  will 
make  up  the  deficiency.  Let  us  therefore  substitute  1  lb.  of  choice 
cottonseed  meal  for  2  lbs.  of  oat  straw.     We  then  have : 


Second  trial  ration  for  maintaining  1,000-lh.  steer 


Feeding  stuffs 

Total 
dry  matter 

Digestible 
protein 

Net  energy 
value 

Corn  stover,  10  lbs 

Oat  straw,  6  lbs 

Cottonseed  meal,  1.0  lb...  . 

Lbs. 
8.10 
5.31 
0.92 

Lbs. 
0.16 
0.05 
0.35 

Therms 
3.16 
2.09 
0.93 

Second  trial   ration 

Standard    requirement 

14.33 

0.56 
.50 

6.18 
6.00 

Excess    or    deficit 

+0.06 

4-0.18 

This  ration  agrees  closely  with  the  standard  in  digestible  protein  and 
net  energy  value.  Thus,  according  to  the  Armsby  standard,  a  satis- 
factory ration  for  maintaining  a  1,000-lb.  steer  may  be  composed  of 
10  lbs.  corn  stover,  6  lbs.  oat  straw  and  1  lb.  choice  cottonseed  meal. 


FEEDING  STANDARDS— CALCULATING  RATIONS  95 

Discussion  of  the  net  energy  systems. — Determining  the  net  energy 
values  of  feeds  is  an  important  advance  in  our  knowledge  of  their  val- 
ues for  productive  purposes.  Unfortunately,  owing  to  the  immense 
amount  of  labor  required  for  each  determination,  data  of  this  kind  can 
be  secured  but  slowly.  In  his  years  of  study  Kellner  determined  the 
starch  values  for  only  about  a  dozen  feeds  and  in  14  years  Armsby  has 
been  able  to  study  only  10  feeds,  several  determinations  of  course  hav- 
ing been  made  upon  each.  While  the  results  for  these  few  feeds  are 
helpful  in  estimating  the  probable  net  energy  values  of  other  feeds 
not  yet  tested,  such  computed  results  are  more  or  less  rough  estimates 
of  the  true  net  energy  values. 

Moreover,  both  Kellner  and  Armsby  have  practically  worked  only 
with  the  steer,  and  the  extent  to  which  the  values  thus  secured  apply  to 
other  classes  of  animals  is  a  question.  It  has  been  shown  that  they 
are  too  low  for  the  dairy  cow  and  too  high  for  steers  near  the  close  of 
the  fattening  period.  AVith  cattle  upwards  of  17  per  ct.  of  the  heat 
value  of  the  digested  food  is  lost  thru  the  fermentations  which  take 
place  in  the  digestive  tract,  especially  the  paunch.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  but  a  small  loss  of  this  kind  with  horses  or  pigs.  Hence,  net 
energy  values  found  in  trials  with  steers  are  more  or  less  inaccurate 
for  horses  and  pigs.  As  Kellner  himself  states,  in  spite  of  the  vast 
amount  of  study  given  to  the  subject,  there  are  still  many  gaps  in  our 
knowledge  of  the  actual  net  energy  values  of  the  different  feeding 
stuffs.  While  the  present  values  are  not  exact  measures  of  the  value  of 
feeds  for  all  classes  of  animals,  they  are,  however,  most  helpful  in 
teaching  great  principles  in  the  feeding  of  live  stock. 


IV.     The  Scandinavian  Feed-Unit  System 

A  system  of  feed  equivalents,  based  mainly  on  extensive  experiments 
with  milch  cows  at  the  Copenhagen  Station,  has  been  adopted  in  Den- 
mark and  other  Scandinavian  countries,  especially  by  cow-testing  asso- 
ciations, for  measuring  the  relative  efficiency  of  milk  production  by 
different  herds  and  individual  cows.  The  system  is  also  occasionally 
used  with  pigs,  but  rarely  for  other  stock.  It  has  been  exceedingly 
useful  in  co-operative  efforts  to  improve  dairy  cattle  and  their  feed- 
ing— lines  in  which  the  Scandinavian  farmers  are  leaders. 

The  feed  unit. — In  the  feed-unit  system  the  value  of  the  different 
feeds  is  compared  with  the  value  of  1  lb.  of  standard  grain  feed,  such  as 
corn  and  barley,  which  are  taken  as  the  unit  of  value.  The  amounts  of 
the  various  feeds  required  to  equal  1  feed  unit  are  given  in  Appendix 
Table  VI. 

The  table  shows  that  corn,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  hominy  feed,  the  dry 


96  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

matter  in  roots,  etc.,  are  all  considered  to  have  about  the  same  value  for 
the  dairy  cow,  1  lb.  equaling  1  feed  unit.  On  this  basis  it  requires 
1.1  lbs.  of  wheat  bran  or  oats,  or  1.5  to  3  lbs.  of  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  to 
equal  1  feed  unit.  Cottonseed  meal,  linseed  meal,  dried  distillers' 
grains,  gluten  feed,  and  soybeans  are  rated  at  a  higher  value  than  the 
same  weight  of  corn  or  wheat,  less  than  a  pound  of  these  concentrates 
being  required  for  a  feed  unit. 

The  feed-unit  values  are  not  true  expressions  of  net  energy,  for  in 
this  system  feeds  rich  in  protein  are  given  a  higher  value  than  feeds 
low  in  protein  which  furnish  the  same  amount  of  net  energy.  For 
example,  in  the  feed-unit  system,  only  0.8  lb.  of  cottonseed  meal  or 
0.9  lb.  of  linseed  meal  is  required  to  equal  1  feed  unit.  Yet  the  real 
net  energy  of  these  feeds  is  lower  than  that  of  corn.  Again,  the  energy 
value  of  timothy  hay  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  clover  or  alfalfa  hay, 
but  in  the  feed-unit  system  timothy  hay  is  rated  50  per  ct.  below  the 
legume  hays.  When  added  to  rations  too  low  in  protein,  feeds  rich  in 
protein  will  have  a  higher  value  than  those  supplying  an  equal  amount 
of  net  energy  but  which  are  low  in  protein.  But  as  has  been  pointed 
out  in  Chapters  IV  and  V,  when  the  ration  already  contains  plenty  of 
protein,  any  additional  amount  will  have  no  higher  value  for  the  forma- 
tion of  fat  or  the  production  of  milk  or  work  than  an  equal  amount  of 
net  energy  supplied  by  carbohydrates  or  fat. 

The  value  of  any  feed  to  the  stockman  depends  on  the  other  feeds 
which  he  has  at  hand.  When  he  has  an  abundance  of  cheap  car- 
bonaceous feeds,  protein-rich  feeds  to  balance  the  ration  will  be  worth 
much  more  to  him  than  an  additional  supply  of  carbonaceous  feeds. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  the  West  with  its  cheap  alfalfa  hay  and  in  the 
South  with  its  low-priced  cottonseed  meal,  feeds  low  in  protein  and  rich 
in  carbohydrates  may  often  be  worth  more  than  those  rich  in  protein. 
The  feed-unit  system  has  been  developed  in  a  comparatively  small 
region,  where  similar  crops  are  grown  on  the  different  farms  and  the 
price  of  purchased  feeds  is  quite  uniform  thruout  the  entire  district, 
hence  this  difficulty  has  not  arisen  there.  No  arbitrary  values  for  feed- 
ing stuffs,  expressed  in  terms  of  feed  units,  money,  or  other  fixed  units, 
can  be  devised  which  will  hold  good  under  such  widely  differing  condi- 
tions as  are  found  in  the  various  sections  of  the  United  States. 

Measuring  economy  of  cows  in  feed  units. — The  chief  value  of  the 
feed  unit  system  for  dairymen  is  for  comparing  the  efficiency  with 
which  individual  cows  and  different  herds  produce  milk  and  butter 
fat.     The  method  of  making  such  comparisons  is  as  follows : 

If  during  a  month  a  cow  has  consumed  240  lbs.  of  hay,  750  lbs.  of 
silage,  60  lbs.  each  of  barley  and  ground  corn,  and  90  lbs.  of  linseed  oil 
meal,  the  calculation  based  on  the  valuation  table  would  be  as  follows: 


FEEDING  STANDARDS— CALCULATING  RATIONS  97 

Feed  consumed  Lbs.  for  1  unit         Feed  units 

240  lbs.  hay ^         2.5         z=  96 

750  lbs.  silage   H-         CO         =         125 

120  lbs.  corn  and  barley -f-         1.0         —         120 

90  lbs.  oil  meal -^         0.9         —         100 

Total  feed  units =         441 

It  is  shown  that  the  cow  consumed  441  feed  units  during  the  month. 
If  in  that  time  she  yielded  850  lbs.  of  milk,  containing  30.6  lbs.  of  fat, 
each  100  feed  units  produced  :^=  193  lbs.  of  milk,  containing  ^= 
6.9  lbs.  butter  fat.  If  the  fat  brought  30  cents  per  pound,  100  feed 
units  would  return  6.9  X  $0.30  =  $2.07.  Similar  comparisons  pf  the 
economy  of  production  of  various  cows  and  herds  may  be  made  on  the 
basis  of  the  therms  of  net  energy  or  the  pounds  of  total  digestible 
nutrients  consumed.^ 


V.     American  Standards  for  Dairy  Cows 

The  Haecker  standard.— As  the  result  of  long  years  of  study  at  the 
Minnesota  Station,*  Haecker  has  made  an  important  advance  in  the 
computing  of  rations  for  the  dairy  cow.  He  has  shown  that  the  nutri- 
ents required  for  her  nourishment  should  vary  not  only  with  the  quan- 
tity of  milk  yielded,  as  is  taught  in  the  standards  previously  discussed, 
but  also  with  the  quality  of  the  product.  The  allowance  of  crude  pro- 
tein recommended  is  also  considerably  lower  than  that  set  forth  in  the 
AVolff-Lehmann  standard.  In  his  standard  Haecker  first  sets  down  the 
total  digestible  nutrients  daily  required  to  maintain  the  1,000-lb.  cow, 
independent  of  the  milk  she  produces,  as  follows :  Crude  protein  0.7  lb., 
carbohydrates  7.0  lbs.,  and  fat  0.1  lb.  For  each  100  lbs.  live  weight  the 
cow  may  exceed  or  fall  below  the  1,000-lb.  standard  there  is  added  or 
subtracted  one-tenth  of  the  standard  ration. 

To  this  maintenance  provision  the  further  allowance  set  forth  in  the 
table  is  added. 

a  Hansson  has  proposed  the  following  feeding  standard  for  dairy  cows  accord- 
ing to  the  feed  unit  system.  This  is  not  of  niucli  interest  to  American  dairymen, 
however,  for  it  is  less  accurate  than  the  standards  of  Haecker,  Savage,  or  Eckles, 
which  are  described  later,  and  which  recognize  the  important  fact  tliat  the  feed 
requirements  of  dairy  cows  depend  not  only  on  the  quantity  but  also  on  the 
richness  of  their  milk. 

For  maintenance,  feed  0.65  lb.  digestible  protein  and  0.6  feed  units  daily  per 
1,000  lbs.  live  weight. 

For  each  poimd  of  milk  produced  add  to  the  maintenance  requirement  0.045 
to  0.05   lb.  digestible  protein  and  0.33  feed  unit. 

4  Minn.  Buls.  71,  79,  130,  140. 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


Haecker's  feeding  standard  for  the  dairy  cow 

Daily  allowance  of  digestible  nutrients 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

For  support  of  the  1,000-lb.  cow 

Lbs. 
0.700 

0.047 
0.049 
0.054 
0.057 
0.060 
0.064 
0.067 
0.072 
0.074 

Lbs. 
7.00 

0.20 
0.22 
0.24 
0.26 
0.28 
0.30 
0.32 
0.34 
0.36 

Lbs. 
0.100 

To  the  allowance  for  support  add: 

For  each  lb.  of  3.0  per  ct.  milk 

For  each  lb.  of  3.5  per  ct.  milk 

For  each  lb.  of  4.0  per  ct.  milk 

For  each  lb.  of  4.5  per  ct.  milk .' 

For  each  lb.  of  5.0  per  ct.  milk 

For  each  lb.  of  5.5  per  ct.  milk 

For  each  lb.  of  6.0  per  ct.  milk 

For  each  lb.  of  6.5  per  ct.  milk 

For  each  lb.  of  7.0  per  ct.  milk 

0.017 
0.019 
0.021 
0.023 
0.024 
0.026 
0.028 
0.029 
0.031 

To  illustrate  the  use  of  the  table  there  are  computed  below  the  re- 
quirements of  a  1,100-lb.  cow  producing  25  lbs.  of  4  per  ct.  milk  daily : 

Digestible  nutrients  required  daily  hy  the  above  cow 


Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

For  maintenance    .  .  . 
For  25  lbs.  of  4  per  ct. 

milk  '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

Lbs. 
0.77 
1.35 

Lbs. 
7.70 
6.00 

Lbs. 
0.11 
0.52 

Total 

2.12 

13.70 

0.63 

In  the  above  there  is  first  set  down  the  maintenance  allowance  for 
the  1,000-lb.  cow,  increased  by  one-tenth  because  this  cow  weighs  100 
lbs.  more  than  the  standard;  this  is  0.77  lb.  crude  protein,  7.7  lbs. 
carbohydrates,  and  0.11  lb.  fat,  all  digestible.  The  previous  table  shows 
the  daily  nutrient  allowance  for  each  pound  of  4  per  ct.  milk  to  be 
0.054  lb.  crude  protein,  0.24  lb.  carbohydrates,  and  0.021  lb.  fat,  all 
digestible.  Since  this  cow  is  yielding  25  lbs.  of  milk  daily,  the  fore- 
going numbers  multiplied  by  25  are  placed  in  the  second  line  of  the 
table.  Adding  these  nutrients  to  those  for  maintenance,  we  have 
2.12  lbs.  of  protein,  13.7  lbs.  of  carbohydrates,  and  0.63  lb.  of  fat  as 
the  quantity  of  digestible  nutrients  required  daily  to  nourish  a  1,100-lb. 
cow  properly  when  giving  25  lbs.  of  4  per  ct.  milk  daily. 

The  WoU-Humphrey  standard. — At  the  Wisconsin  Station  Woll  and 
Humphrey  prepared  convenient  tables  showing  the  feed  requirements 
of  cows  of  different  weights  and  producing  various  amounts  of  butter 
fat  per  day.  To  simplify  the  computation  of  rations,  in  these  tables 
the  requirements  are  stated  in  terms  of  di*y  matter,  digestible  crude 


FEEDING  STANDARDS— CALCULATING  RATIONS  99 

protein,  and  total  digestible  nutrients,  the  latter  term  including  the 
digestible  protein,  the  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  the  digestible 
fat  X  2.25.  This  simplification  agrees  with  the  uses  made  of  the  dif- 
ferent nutrients  in  the  animal  body,  for,  as  we  have  already  learned, 
carbohydrates  and  fat  in  general  perform  the  same  functions  in  the 
body.  Likewise,  after  there  has  been  supplied  the  minimum  amount  of 
protein  needed  for  the  repair  of  body  tissues  and  the  formation  of  milk 
protein,  any  additional  amount  serves  the  same  purposes  as  do  the 
carbohydrates  and  fat.  The  requirements  of  a  1,000-lb.  cow,  according 
to  this  system,^  are  shown  in  the  following  table.  The  allowance  for 
maintenance  is  the  same  as  in  the  Haecker  standard : 

W oil- Humphrey  standard  for  1,000-lb.  dairy  cow 

Digestible  Total 

Dry  crude  digestible 

matter  protein  nutrients 

Lbs.                    Lbs.  Lbs. 

Dry  COW  12.5                 0.70  7.9 

Cow  yielding  1.0  lb.  fat  per  day 22.3  2.02  15.4 

Cow  yielding  1.5  lbs.  fat  per  day 27.3  2.86  19.2 

Cow  yielding  2.0  lbs.  fat  per  day 30.9  3.42  23.0 

This  system  of  expressing  the  requirements  of  dairy  cows  has  been 
found  convenient  in  practice.  It  is  not  strictly  accurate,  however, 
when  applied  to  milks  varying  widely  in  the  percentage  of  fat  con- 
tained. Haecker 's  table  places  the  requirements  for  a  pound  of  butter 
fat  in  rich  milk  considerably  lower  than  for  a  pound  in  milk  low  in  fat. 
For  example,  for  100  lbs.  of  3  per  ct.  milk  there  are  required  4.7  lbs. 
protein,  20.0  lbs.  carbohydrates,  and  1.7  lbs.  fat,  while  for  50  lbs.  of 
6  per  ct.  milk,  containing  the  same  amount  of  fat,  only  3.3  lbs.  protein, 
16.0  lbs.  carbohydrates,  and  1.4  lbs.  fat  are  required.  This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that,  tho  the  6  per  ct.  milk  contains  twice  as  much  fat  as  the 
3  per  ct.  milk,  it  is  not  twice  as  rich  in  sugar  and  protein. 

The  Savage  standard. — From  trials  at  the  New  York  (Cornell) 
Station  °  Savage  concludes  that  for  maximum  production  the  nutritive 
ratio  of  rations  for  dairy  cows  should  not  be  wider  than  1 :6.  He  has 
accordingly  modified  the  Haecker  standard  by  increasing  the  protein 
requirement  per  pound  of  milk  from  18  to  20  per  ct.  His  standard 
is  also  simplified  by  being  stated  in  terms  of  dry  matter,  digestible 
crude  protein,  and  total  digestible  nutrients  (or  as  Savage  terms  it 
"total  nutriment"),  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  Woll-Humphrey 
standard.  The  requirements  according  to  this  standard  are  shown  in 
the  next  table. 

5  Table  as  revised  by  Humphrey,  unpublished  data. 
6N.  Y.    (Cornell)    Bui.  323. 


100 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


The  Eckles  standard. — From  experiments  at  the  IMissouri  Station  ^ 
and  from  the  work  of  Savage  and  Armsby,  Eckles  has  drawn  up  a 
standard  according  to  the  Armsby  system,  showing  the  requirements 
of  cows  producing  milk  containing  various  percentages  of  fat.  This 
also  is  given  in  the  next  table. 

Comparison  of  standards  for  dairy  cows. — In  the  following  table 
the  Haecker,  Savage,  and  Eckles  standards  are  brought  together  for 
comparison.  Haecker 's  figures  have  been  converted  into  total  digest- 
ible nutrients  as  in  the  Savage  standard.  The  Woll-Humphrey  stand- 
ard cannot  be  included  for  it  is  not  based  on  the  percentage  of  fat  in 
the  milk,  but  upon  the  daily  yield  of  fat. 

Feeding  standards  for  dairy  cows  compared 


Haecker  standard 

Savage  standard 

Eckles  standard 

Diges'ble 

Total 

Diges'ble 

Total 

Diges'b'.e 

Net 
energy 

crude 

digestible 

crude 

digestible 

true 

protein 

nutrients 

protein 

nutrients 

protein 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Therms 

For   maintenance   of   1,0001b. 

0.700 

7.925 

0.700 

7.925 

0.500 

6.00 

To  aUowance  for  mainte- 

nance add: 

For  each  lb.  of  2.5  per  ct.  milk. 

0.045 

0.254 

0.053 

0.257 

For  each  lb.  of  3.0  per  et.  milk. 

0  047 

0.284 

0.U57 

0.287 

O.OSO 

0'.26 

For  each  lb.  of  3.5  per  ct.  milk. 

0.049 

0.313 

0.061 

0.319 

0.052 

0.28 

For  each  lb.  of  4.0  per  ct.  milk. 

0.054 

0.343 

0.065 

0.350 

0.055 

0.30 

For  each  lb.  of  4.5  per  ct.  milk. 

0.057 

0.372 

0.069 

0.379 

0.058 

0.33 

For  each  lb.  of  5.0  per  ct.  milk. 

0.060 

0.398 

0.073 

0.405 

0.062 

0.36 

For  each  lb.  of  5.5  per  ct.  milk. 

0.064 

0.424 

0.077 

0.431 

0.066 

0.40 

For  each  lb.  of  6.0  per  ct.  milk. 

0.067 

0.451 

0.081 

0.457 

0.070 

0.45 

For  each  lb.  of  6.5  per  ct.  milk. 

0  072 

0.480 

0.085 

0.484 

0.075 

0  50 

For  each  lb.  of  7.0  per  ct.  milk. 

0.074 

0.502 

0.089 

0.508 

.... 

The  Haecker  and  Savage  standards  agree  in  the  requirements  for 
maintenance.  Savage's  digestible  crude-protein  requirement  for  pro- 
duction is  higher  in  each  ease,  as  already  pointed  out.  In  total  digest- 
ible nutrients  he  agrees  quite  closely  with  Haecker.  As  Eckles' 
standard  is  expressed  in  digestible  true  protein  (not  crude  protein) 
and  therms,  it  cannot  be  directly  compared  with  the  others.  By  com- 
puting the  amount  of  true  protein  and  crude  protein  in  typical  good 
dairy  rations,  it  will  be  found  that  if  Eckles'  figures  were  changed  into 
crude  protein  they  would  be  even  higher  than  Savage's.  Similar  com- 
parisons show  that  Eckles'  standard  calls  for  about  the  same  amount  of 
total  digestible  nutrients  for  milk  low  in  fat,  but  up  to  one-fifth  more 
for  rich  milk. 

From  the  foregoing  w^e  may  conclude  that  when  protein-rich  feeds 
are  high  in  price  compared  with  those  low  in  protein,  it  will  usually  be 
economical  to  feed  no  more  protein  than  is  called  for  by  the  Haecker 
standard,  at  least  to  cows  of  average  production.     On  the  other  hand, 

7  Mo.  Res.  Bui.  7. 


FEEDING  STANDARDS— CALCULATING  RATIONS  101 

when  protein-rich  feeds  are  comparatively  cheap,  the  dairyman  may 
well  feed  as  heavy  an  allowance  as  Savage  and  Eckles  recommend. 
Even  these  amounts  are  lower  than  called  for  in  the  original  Wolff- 
Lehmann  standards.  The  skilled  dairyman  will  adapt  the  amount  of 
concentrates  fed  to  the  productive  ability  of  each  cow,  not  compound- 
ing a  different  ration  for  each  animal,  but  will  balance  the  ration  for 
the  average  of  the  herd  and  then  feed  the  cows  as  much  roughage  as 
they  will  consume  and  concentrates  in  proportion  to  the  milk  or  butter 
fat  produced  by  the  several  cows,  as  is  explained  in  Chapter  XX. 


VI.     ^Modified  Wolff-Lehmann  Standards 

Methods  of  computing  rations  compared.— In  this  chapter  it  has 
been  pointed  out  that  valuing  feeds  for  productive  purposes  on  the 
basis  of  their  net  energy  content,  is  theoretically  more  accurate  than 
the  Wolff-Lehmann  method  of  comparing  them  in  terms  of  the 
digestible  nutrients  they  furnish.  Unfortunately,  the  net-energy 
values  have  been  determined  for  but  a  few  feeds,  and  with  these  only 
for  the  fattening  steer.  For  other  feeds  and  other  classes  of  animals, 
the  values  which  may  be  computed  are  but  approximations.  On  the 
other  hand,  during  the  last  half-century  scores  of  thousands  of  analyses 
of  feeding  stuffs  have  been  made,  as  shown  in  Appendix.  Table  I,  and 
large  numbers  of  digestion  experiments  have  been  conducted  in  which 
the  coefficients  of  digestibility  have  been  determined,  as  given  in  Appen- 
dix Table  II.  Thus,  the  values  for  digestible  nutrients  in  the  various 
feeding-stuffs,  given  in  Appendix  Table  III,  rest  on  a  reasonably  secure 
basis,  tho  we  must  remember  that  different  kinds  of  animals  digest 
somewhat  different  percentages  of  feeds,  especially  of  roughages. 

The  value  of  a  concentrate  and  of  a  roughage  for  productive  purposes 
cannot  be  compared  on  the  basis  of  the  digestible  nutrients  each  fur- 
nishes, for  in  the  roughage,  containing  more  fiber,  a  larger  part  of  the 
energy  in  the  digested  nutrients  is  used  up  in  the  non-productive  work 
of  mastication,  digestion,  and  assimilation.  In  the  ordinary  rations 
for  each  class  of  animals,  concentrates  and  roughages  are,  however, 
usually  fed  in  about  the  same  proportions.  This  tends  to  lessen  any 
error  due  to  inaccuracy  in  computing  rations  according  to  the  Wolff- 
Lehmann  method. 

Furthermore,  in  this  method  a  definite  amount  of  dry  matter  is  pre- 
scribed. If  a  ration  contains  sufficient  digestible  nutrients  to  meet  the 
Wolff-Lehmann  standards,  but  carries  too  much  dry  matter,  obviously 
too  much  roughage  or  concentrates  too  high  in  fiber  have  been  used, 
and  the  net-energy  value  will  consequently  be  too  low.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  content  of  digestible  nutrients  satisfies  the  standard,  while 


102  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

the  ration  does  not  contain  the  dry  matter  called  for,  it  shows  that  feeds 
more  concentrated  in  character  than  necessary  have  been  used.  In  this 
case  some  roughage  or  feeds  higher  in  fiber  may  be  substituted  till  the 
dry-matter  content  is  brought  up  to  the  standard.  AVith  this  simple 
check  errors  of  any  importance  in  the  net-energy  value  of  the  ration 
can  be  avoided. 

Necessity  for  modifying  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards. — It  has 
already  been  shown  in  this  chapter  that  in  several  instances  the  original 
Wolff-Lehmann  standards  do  not  set  forth  the  actual  requirements  of 
farm  animals  as  revealed  by  the  many  experiments  which  have  been 
carried  on  since  these  standards  were  drawn  up.  We  know,  for 
example,  that  the  allowance  of  digestible  crude  protein  prescribed  is 
higher  than  is  needed  by  fattening  animals,  dairy  cows,  and  work 
horses.  Yet,  these  standards  are  to-day  more  commonly  employed  in 
this  country,  except  perhaps  with  the  dairy  cow,  than  any  other  system 
for  formulating  rations.  Indeed,  the  authors  have  recently  found 
feeders,  annually  fattening  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  animals, 
who  were  balancing  rations  according  to  the  original  Wolff-Lehmann 
standards  by  the  addition  of  unnecessary  amounts  of  high-priced 
protein-rich  concentrates. 

Modified  Wolff-Lehmann  standards. — With  these  facts  in  mind  the 
authors  have  attempted  to  combine  in  one  standard  what  appear  in 
their  judgment  to  be  the  best  guides  we  have  at  present  in  the  formu- 
lation of  rations  for  various  classes  of  animals.  To  make  the  computa- 
tions as  easy  as  possible,  the  standards,  which  are  given  in  detail  in 
Appendix  Table  V,  are  expressed  simply  in  terms  of  total  dry  matter, 
digestible  crude  protein,  and  total  digestible  nutrients.  Realizing  that 
feeding  standards  are  but  approximations,  in  most  cases  minimum  and 
maximum  figures  are  given  for  dry  matter,  digestible  crude  protein, 
and  total  digestible  nutrients.  Since  progressive  feeders  thruout  the 
country  now  appreciate  the  significance  of  the  nutritive  ratio  of  a 
ration,  the  approximate  upper  and  lower  advisable  limits  of  nutritive 
ratios  for  the  different  classes  have  been  stated.  To  correspond  with 
these  standards,  Appendix  Table  III  contains  a  column  showing  the 
total  digestible  nutrients  furnished  in  100  lbs.  of  each  feed.  Likewise, 
so  that  one  may  see  at  a  glance  which  feeds  are  high  and  which  are  low 
in  protein,  compared  with  carbohydrates  and  fat,  the  nutritive  ratio 
for  each  feed  has  been  computed  and  is  given  in  the  table.  With  these 
aids  it  is  hoped  that  the  standards  presented  may  be  of  real  assistance 
to  students  and  feeders  who  desire  to  compute  rations  substantially  in 
accordance  with  the  Wolff-Lehmann  method,  while  recognizing  the 
results  of  the  later  investigations  in  animal  feeding. 


FEEDING  STANDARDS— CALCULATING  RATIONS 


103 


Ration  for  a  work  horse. — To  illustrate  the  manner  of  using  the 
Modified  Wolff-Lehmann  standards,  let  us  compute  a  ration  for  a 
1,400-lb.  horse  doing  medium  work.  The  standard  for  horses  at 
medium  work  calls  for  16.0-24.0  lbs.  of  dry  matter,  1.4—1.7  lbs.  digest- 
ible crude  protein,  and  12.8-15.6  lbs.  total  digestible  nutrients  per 
1,000  lbs.  live  weight.  (See  Appendix  Table  V.)  The  nutritive  ratio 
should  not  be  wider  than  1 :7.8-l  :8.3.  Multiplying  the  requirements 
for  1,000  lbs.  by  1.4,  we  find  that  this  1,400-lb.  horse  will  require 
22.4^33.6  lbs.  dry  matter,  2.0-2.4  lbs.  digestible  crude  protein,  and 
17.9-21.8  lbs.  total  digestible  nutrients. 

Let  us  suppose  that  this  is  to  be  a  corn-belt  ration  and  that  dent 
corn  is  the  cheapest  grain  available.  For  roughage  we  have  plenty  of 
timothy  hay  and  good,  bright,  clover  hay.  According  to  the  rule  on 
Page  88,  horses  at  work  should  be  given  2  to  3  lbs.  of  feed  (roughages 
and  concentrates  combined)  daily  per  100  lbs.  live  weight,  with  10  to 
18  lbs.  of  concentrates  per  head  daily,  depending  on  the  severity  of  the 
work.  As  it  is  costly  to  feed  more  grain  than  necessary,  we  take  for  a 
trial  ration  10  lbs.  of  corn  and  18  lbs.  of  timothy  hay,  making  28  lbs. 
in  all,  or  2  lbs.  per  100  lbs.  live  weight.  Computing  the  dry  matter, 
digestible  crude  protein,  and  total  digestible  nutrients  in  these  allow- 
ances, we  have : 


First  trial  ration  for 

1,400-lb.  horse  at  medium  work 

Feeding,  stuffs 

Dry 

matter 

Dig. 
crude 
protein 

Total 
dig.  nu- 
trients 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 

Dent  corn,  10  lbs 

Lbs. 
8.95 
15.91 

24.86 

Lbs. 
0.75 
0.54 

Lbs. 
8.57 
8.73 

Timothy  hay,  18  lbs 

Total  

1.29 

17.30 

1:12.4 

This  ration  furnishes  nearly  as  much  total  digestible  nutrients  as  is 
called  for  in  the  standard,  but  falls  far  short  in  crude  protein,  having 
the  very  wide  ratio  of  1 :12.4.  .  We  can  bring  the  crude  protein  up  to 
the  standard  by  substituting  protein-rich  concentrates  for  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  corn,  but  this  will  add  to  the  expense,  for  we  have 
assumed  that  corn  is  the  cheapest  grain  available.  Tho  timothy  hay  is 
more  commonly  fed  to  horses  than  any  other  in  the  northeastern  United 
States,  good,  bright,  clover  hay,  which  is  rich  in  protein,  is  practically 
as  satisfactory  for  work  horses.  Let  us  then  see  how  near  we  will 
come  to  meeting  the  standard  if  we  substitute  clover  hay  for  half  the 
timothy  hay.     Arranging  the  results  as  before,  we  will  have : 


104 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


Second  trial  ration  for  1,400-lh.  horse  at  medium  work 


Feeding  stuffs 

Dry 

matter 

crude 
protein 

Total 
dig.  nu- 
trients 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 

Dent  corn    10  lbs        

Lbs. 
8.95 
7.9(1 

7.84 

Lbs. 
0.75 
0.27 
0.68 

Lbs. 
S.57 
4.36 
4.58 

Timothy  hay,  1)  lbs 

Clover  iiay  9  lbs 

Total    

24.75 

1.70 

17.51 

1:9.3 

Tho  much  better,  this  ration  is  still  somewhat  below  the  standard 
both  in  digestible  crude  protein  and  total  digestible  nutrients. 
Eighteen  lbs.  of  hay  is  all  that  should  be  fed  to  a  horse  of  this  weight 
at  medium  work.  Therefore,  instead  of  adding  clover  hay  to  the  ration, 
we  must  increase  the  digestible  crude  protein  and  total  digestible 
nutrients  by  adding  a  small  amount  of  some  protein-rich  concentrate. 
Let  us  try  1  lb.  of  choice  cottonseed  meal,  when  we  will  have : 

Third  trial  ration  for  1,400-lh.  horse  at  medium  work 


Feeding  stuffs 

Dry 

matter 

crude 
protein 

Total 
die:,  nu- 
trients 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 

Dent  corn    10  lbs                  

Lbs. 
8.95 
0.92 
7.96 

7.84 

Lbs. 
0.75 
0.37 
0.27 
0.68 

Lbs. 
8.57 
0.78 
4.36 
4.58 

Cottonseed  meal,  choice,  1  lb 

Timothy  hav,  9  lbs 

Clover  iiay,  9  lbs 

Total    

25.67 

2.07 

18.29 

1:7.8 

This  ration  meets  tbe  standard  in  all  particulars  and  wall  give  good 
results  in  practice.  It  should  not  be  fed  blindly,  however,  for  some 
horses  are  hard  and  others  easy  keepers.  Therefore,  if  the  horse  loses 
weight  on  this  ration,  increase  the  allowance  of  corn  gradually.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  he  is  an  easy  keeper  and  becomes  too  fat,  cut  down  the 
amount  of  corn.  Other  protein-rich  feeds,  such  as  wheat  bran,  dried 
brewers'  grains,  or  linseed  meal,  could  be  used  just  as  satisfactorily  as 
cottonseed  meal  in  balancing  the  ration,  the  choice  depending  on  the 
prices  of  the  various  feeds  available. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  essentials  of  a  satisfactory  ration? 

2.  Compute  a  ration  for  a  1,400-lb.  horse  at  medium  work  according  to  the 
Wolff-Lehmann  standard.  In  this  and  the  following  problems  use  feeds  avail- 
able in  your  local  district  and  find  the  cost  of  the  ration  at  local  prices. 

3.  Wherein  do  the  Armsby  and  Kellner  standards  differ  from  the  Wolff- 
Lehmann  standards? 


PEEDIKG  STANDARDS— CALCULATING  RATIONS  105 

4.  Compute  a  ration  for  maintaining  a  1,200-lb.  steer  according  to  the  Armsby 
standard. 

5.  During  a  month  a  cow  produced  920  lbs.  of  milk  containing  3.8  per  ct. 
butter  fat.  She  ate  360  lbs.  of  alfalfa  hay,  900  lbs.  corn  silage,  120  lbs.  corn 
meal,  and  60  lbs.  wheat  bran.  How  much  milk  and  how  much  butter  fat  did 
she  yield  per   100  feed  units? 

6.  What  are  the  distinguishing  features  of  the  Haecker  standard  for  dairy 
cows? 

7.  Wherein  does  the  WoU-Humphrey  standard  differ  from  the  Haecker 
standard  ? 

8.  Compare  the  amounts  of  protein  and  total  digestible  nutrients  recom- 
mended in  the  Savage  and  Eckles   standards  with  the  Haecker   standard. 

9.  How  do  the  Modified  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  differ  from  the  original 
Wolff- Lehmann   standards  ? 

10.  Compute  a  ration  for  a  1,400-lb.  horse  at  hard  work  according  to  the 
Modified  Wolff-Lehmann  standard.  How  does  this  ration  differ  from  the  one 
given   in  the  book  for   the  horse  at  medium  work? 

11.  Compute  rations  for  fattening  2-year-old  steers  on  full  feed  (a)  for  the 
first  50  days  when  the  steers  average  1,100  lbs.  in.  weight,  (b)  for  the  second 
50  days  when  they  average  1,210  lbs.,  and  (c)  for  the  last  50  days  when  they 
average  1,320  Iba. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

ECONOMY  IN  FEEDING  LIVE  STOCK 

I.     Selecting  Economical  Rations 

To  secure  the  largest  returns,  the  stockman  must,  first  of  all,  under- 
stand the  fundamental  principles  governing  the  feeding  of  the  various 
classes  of  live  stock,  discussed  in  the  preceding  chapters.  He  must 
next  study  the  possibilities  of  his  farm  for  crops,  paying  attention  to 
both  their  probable  yield  and  their  value  for  feeding  to  stock  or  for 
sale.  It  is  also  necessary  to  consider  the  feeding  value  and  compare 
the  prices  of  the  many  feeds  v^hich  can  be  secured  on  the  market. 
With  this  knowledge  he  is  in  a  position  to  plan  his  rotations  so  that 
from  the  crops  raised,  supplemented  by  purchased  feeds  when  it  is 
economical,  well-balanced  rations  may  be  provided  at  the  least  expense. 
As  a  rule  it  is  wise  to  raise  all  roughage  on  the  farm.  Owing  to  the 
demand  for  the  cereal  grains  for  human  consumption,  it  is  often  eco- 
nomical to  sell  more  or  less  of  the  farm-grown  grains  and  replace  them 
with  purchased  concentrates  which  may  economically  supplement  the 
feeds  raised  on  the  farm. 

Market  prices  not  guides  to  value. — The  market  price  of  a  feed  is 
often  no  index  of  its  value  to  the  individual  stockman,  as  a  few 
examples  will  illustrate :  In  the  northeastern  states  timothy  hay  is 
generally  higher  in  price  than  clover  hay,  tho  much  inferior  for  all 
animals  except  the  horse.  In  the  South  cottonseed  hulls  usually  cost 
more  than  the  sum  for  which  an  equivalent  amount  of  corn  silage,  a 
much  more  palatable  feed,  can  be  produced  on  the  farm.  Owing  to 
their  popularity,  some  feeds,  such  as  linseed  meal  and  wheat  bran,  are 
often  high  in  price  compared  with  other  concentrates  which  are  entirely 
satisfactory  substitutes.  At  the  other  extreme,  low  grade  concentrates, 
such  as  trashy  corn  and  oat  feed,  cottonseed  feed,  and  inferior  mixed 
feeds,  often  sell  for  as  much  or  but  slightly  less  than  high  grade  con- 
centrates. 

How  to  select  feeds  for  economical  rations. — Many  attempts  have 
been  made  to  assign  a  definite  money  value  to  1  lb.  of  digestible  crude 
protein,  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  digestible  fat,  and  then  compute 
the  value  of  different  feeds  on  the  basis  of  the  amount  of  these  nutrients 
they  contain,  similar  to  the  manner  of  arriving  at  the  money  value  of 

106 


ECONOMY  IN  FEEDING  LIVE  STOCK  107 

fertilizers.  (See  Chapter  XVII.)  While  such  a  system  may  be  of 
limited  value  for  a  short  period  of  time  and  when  applied  to  small 
districts  where  the  systems  of  farming  do  not  differ  widely,  no  such 
set  of  values  can  be  applied  generally  thruout  the  United  States.  This 
is  because  the  value  of  any  given  feed  to  the  stockman  depends  on  the 
nature  and  composition  of  the  other  feeds  he  has  on  hand  at  the  par- 
ticular time.  If  his  chief  roughage  is  alfalfa  hay,  protein-rich  concen- 
trates are  often  worth  less  to  him  than  those  rich  in  carbohydrates. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  his  roughage  is  mostly  corn  or  sorghum  silage, 
low  in  protein,  then  protein-rich  concentrates  will  be  of  higher  value  to 
him  than  those  of  carbonaceous  character. 

In  comparing  the  relative  cheapness  of  different  feeds,  it  is  reason- 
able to  value  marketable  farm-grown  feeds  at  the  market  price  less  the 
cost  of  hauling  to  market.  Feeds  not  marketable  may  be  assigned  a 
value  based  on  the  cost  of  production.  To  the  price  of  any  purchased 
feeds  should  be  added  any  cost  of  hauling  to  the  farm,  tho  often  they 
may  be  brought  to  the  farm  on  a  return  trip  from  market  with  little 
or  no  additional  expense.  In  selling  crops  and  buying  feed  the  prudent 
farmer-stockman  will  always  take  into  account  the  value  of  the  fertility 
gained  or  lost  in  the  transaction. 

In  planning  economical  rations  for  any  class  of  animals  the  stock- 
man should  first  choose  a  combination,  containing  the  proper  propor- 
tion of  concentrates  and  roughages,  which  will  supply  the  necessary 
total  amount  of  nutrients  at  the  minimum  expense.  If  this  ration  is 
too  low  in  protein,  the  supply  should  be  brought  to  the  desired  amount 
by  substituting  protein-rich  feeds  for  those  lower  in  protein.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  ration  is  too  rich  in  protein,  then  carbonaceous  feeds 
should  be  substituted  until  the  nutritive  ratio  is  widened  sufficiently. 

To  determine  which  feeds  are  the  cheapest  supplements  to  balance  a 
ration  low  in  protein,  it  will  be  found  convenient  to  compute  the  cost 
of  the  different  feeds  per  pound  of  digestible  crude  protein. 

A  comparison  of  corn-belt  feeds  for  milk  production. — To  show 
how  the  prices  of  the  available  feeds  should  be  studied  in  computing 
rations,  let  us  assume  that  a  dairyman  in  the  corn  belt  has  available 
the  following :  Ground  dent  corn  at  $20,  ground  oats  at  $25,  ground 
barley  at  $26,  timothy  hay  at  $16,  red  clover  hay  at  $12,  and  corn 
silage  from  well-matured  corn  at  $3.50  per  ton.  He  can  purchase 
hominy  feed  at  $26,  high-grade  gluten  feed  at  $30,  wheat  bran  at  $25, 
corn  and  oat  feed  at  $25,  choice  cottonseed  meal  at  $34,  old-process 
linseed  meal  at  $34,  and  alfalfa  meal  at  $22  per  ton.  For  convenience 
we  will  arrange  in  tabular  form  the  data  from  Appendix  Table  III  for 
these  different  feeds,  and  compute  the  cost  per  pound  of  digestible 
crude  protein  and  the  cost  of  1  lb.  of  total  digestible  nutrients  in  each. 


108 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


Comparison  of  the  economy  of  various  feeds  at  the  stated  prices 


Feeding  stuff 


Dry 

matter 

in  100 

lbs. 


Dig. 
crude 
protein 
in  100 

lbs. 


Total 
dig. 
nutri- 
ents in 
100  lbs. 


Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 


Price 
per 

ton 


Cost 
per  lb. 
of  dig. 
crude 
protein 


Cost  of 
1  lb.  of 
total 
dig. 
nutri- 
ents 


Concentrates 

Dent  corn    

Hominy  feed   

Gluten  feed,  high  grade.  . 
Wheat  bran,  all  analyses. 

Oats    .' 

Corn  and  oat  feed 

Barley,  ground   

Cottonseed  meal,  choice.. 

Linseed  meal,  old-process. 

Distillers'  grains,   dried, 

from  corn 

Roughages 
Timothy  hay,  all  analyses 

Alfalfa  meal   

Red  clover  hay,  all  analyses 
Corn  silage,  recent  analyses 


89.5 
89.9 
91.3 
89.9 
90.8 
88.6 
90.7 
92.5 
90.9 

93.4 


SS.4 
91.2 
87.1 
20.3 


Lbs. 

7.5 

7.0 

21.6 

12.5 

9.7 

7.3 

9.0 

37.0 

30.2 

22.4 


3.0 

10.2 

7.6 

1.1 


Lbs. 

85.7 
84.6 
80.7 
60.9 
70.4 
75.6 
79.4 
78.2 
77.9 


48.5 
50.7 
50.9 
17.7 


1: 

10.4 
11.1 
2.7 
3.9 
6.3 
9.4 
7.S 
1.1 
1.6 

3.0 


15.2 
4.0 
5.7 

15.1 


Dollars 

20.00 
26.00 
30.00 
25.00 
25.00 
25.00 
26.00 
34.00 
34.00 

31.00 


16.00 

22.00 

12.00 

3.50 


Cents 

13.33 
18.57 
6.94 
10.00 
12.89 
17.12 
14.44 
4.59 
5.63 

6.92 


26.67 

10.78 

7.8!) 

15.91 


Cents 

1.17 
1.54 
1.86 
2.05 
1.78 
1.65 
1.64 
2.17 
2.18 

1.74 


1.65 
2.17 

1.18 
0,99 


This  {able  does  not  assume  to  represent  average  conditions  in  any 
district  of  the  country,  but  shows  how  any  stockman  may  compare  the 
relative  economy  of  the  different  available  feeds  at  local  prices.  The 
last  column  shows  clearly  that,  for  the  feeds  given  and  with  prices  as 
stated,  com  is  by  far  the  cheapest  source  of  total  digestible  nutrients 
among  the  concentrates.  Of  the  roughages,  corn  silage  supplies  total 
digestible  nutrients  most  cheaply,  followed  by  clover  hay.  For  balanc- 
ing a  ration  low  in  protein,  cottonseed  meal  will  furnish  digestible 
crude  protein  at  4.59  cts.  per  pound,  linseed  meal  at  5.63  cts.,  dried  dis- 
tillers' grains  at  6.92  cts.,  gluten  feed  at  6.94  cts.,  red  clover  hay  at 
7.89  cts.,  and  wheat  bran  at  10.00  cts.  In  supplj^ing  protein  these 
feeds  will  of  course  also  furnish  carbohydrates  and  fat  as  well,  which 
are  included  in  the  total  digestible  nutrients. 

A  corn-belt  ration  for  milk  production. — From  the  feeds  listed  let 
us  now  formulate  the  most  economical  ration  which  will  be  satisfac- 
tory for  a  1,200-lb.  cow  yielding  daily  30  lbs.  of  3.5  per  ct.  milk.  For 
this  cow  there  will  be  required,  according  to  the  IModified  Wolff-Leh- 
mann  standard  (Appendix  Table  V),  a  minimum  daily  allowance  of 
2.31  to  2.67  lbs.  digestible  crude  protein  and  18.99  lbs.  total  digestible 
nutrients.  The  ration  should  contain  from  25  to  30  lbs.  of  dry  matter, 
and  should  have  a  nutritive  ratio  no  wider  than  1 :6.1  to  1 :7.2. 

Altho  com  silage  is  the   cheapest  roughage   available,  some   dry 


ECONOMY  IN  FEEDING  LIVE  STOCK 


109 


roughage  should  be  fed  with  it  to  dairy  cows.  Of  the  dry  rough- 
ages, clover  hay  is  the  cheapest.  Let  us  then  follow  the  general  rule 
of  feeding  1  lb.  of  dry  roughage  and  3  lbs.  of  silage  per  100  lbs.  live 
weight.  To  this  allowance  of  roughage,  we  will  add  enough  corn  to 
bring  the  total  digestible  nutrients  up  to  the  amount  advised  in  the 
standard,  for  corn  is  the  concentrate  which  furnishes  total  digestible 
nutrients  most  cheaply.     Tabulating  the  results  we  will  have : 

First  trial  ration  for  corn-ielt  dairy  cow 


Feeding  stuflf 

Dry 

matter 

Dig.  crude 
protein 

Total  dig. 
nutrients 

Cost 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 

Clover  hay,  12.0  lbs 

Corn  silage,  36.0  lbs 

Corn,  dent,  8.0  lbs 

Lbs. 

10.45 

9.47 

7.16 

Lbs. 
0.912 
0.396 
0.600 

Lbs. 
6.108 
6.372 
6.856 

Cents 
7.20 
6.30 
8.00 

Total     

27.0S 

1.908 

19.336 

21.50 

1:9.1 

This  ration,  which  costs  21.5  cts.,  meets  the  standard  in  total  digest- 
ible nutrients  and  dry  matter,  but  is  decidedly  deficient  in  protein. 
We  could  narrow  the  nutritive  ratio  by  feeding  less  silage  and  more 
clover  hay,  but  corn  silage  is  the  cheapest  feed  available.  Therefore 
we  should  substitute  protein-rich  concentrates  for  a  part  of  the  corn. 

If  1.5  lbs.  of  cottonseed  meal  was  substituted  for  the  same  weight 
of  corn,  the  ration  would  furnish  about  2.3  lbs.  of  digestible  crude 
protein,  the  minimum  amount  recommended  in  the  standard.  Ground 
corn  and  cottonseed  meal  are,  however,  both  heavy  feeds,  weighing 
about  1.5  lbs.  per  quart.  (Appendix  Table  IX.)  It  is  hence  desir- 
able to  add  some  bulky  concentrate  which  is  also  high  in  protein. 
Dried  distillers'  grains  are  about  as  bulky  as  wheat  bran  and  furnish 
protein  much  more  cheaply.  Alfalfa  meal  is  not  so  economical  as  dis- 
tillers' grains,  and  gluten  feed  is  a  somewhat  heavier  feed.  Let  us 
then  substitute  0.5  lb.  of  cottonseed  meal  and  2.0  lbs.  of  dried  dis- 
tillers' grains  for  2.5  lbs.  of  corn,  and  again  tabulate  the  results: 

Second  trial  ration  for  corn-helt  dairy  cow 


Feeding  stuff 

Dry 
matter 

Dig.  crude 
protein 

Total  dig. 
nutrients 

Cost 

Nutri- 
tive 
rati* 

Clover  hay,  12.0  lbs 

Corn  silage,  36.0  lbs 

Corn,  dent,  5.5  lbs 

Cottonseed  meal,  0.5  lb. .  . 

Distillers'   grains,    dried, 

2.0  lbs 

Lbs. 

10.45 
9.47 
4.92 
0.46 

1.87 

Lbs. 
0.912 
0.396 
0.412 
0.185 

0.448 

Lbs. 

6.108 

6.372 

4.714 

0.391 

1.778 

Cents 
7.20 
6.30 
5.50 

0.85 

3.10 

Total     

27.17 

2.353 

19.363 

22.95 

1:7.2 

110 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


This  ration,  which  costs  22.95  cts.,  supplies  the  minimum  amount  of 
protein  recommended  by  the  standard,  and  is  slightly  above  it  in 
total  digestible  nutrients.  Tho  costing  1.45  cts.  more  than  the  first 
ration,  it  will  be  more  economical,  for  it  should  produce  much  better 
results. 

It  was  explained  in  Chapter  VII  that  the  lower  amounts  of  digest- 
ible crude  protein  advised  for  the  dairy  cow  in  the  ]\lodified  Woltf-Leh- 
mann  standards  are  the  amounts  recommended  by  Ilaecker,  while  the 
higher  figures  are  those  set  forth  by  Savage.  (Appendix  Table  V.) 
Cows  of  pronounced  dairy  temperament  may  be  advantageously  fed 
as  much  protein  as  called  for  by  the  higher  figures,  providing  this  does 
not  greatly  increase  the  cost  of  the  ration.  Let  us  then  see  how 
cheaply  a  ration  can  be  provided  which  will  supply  2.67  lbs.  of  digest- 
ible crude  protein,  the  higher  figure  advised  by  the  standard.  The 
protein  can  be  added  most  cheaply  by  substituting  more  cottonseed 
meal  for  corn,  but  instead  of  merely  using  more  cottonseed  meal,  let 
us  feed  1  lb.  of  wheat  bran,  which  will  lighten  the  still  somewhat 
heavy  concentrate  mixture  and  which  is  much  relished  by  the  cow. 
At  the  prices  given,  bran  is  an  expensive  source  of  protein,  since  it  is 
not  high  in  that  nutrient.  The  price  per  pound  of  total  digestible 
nutrients  is,  however,  slightly  lower  than  that  of  cottonseed  meal. 
Arranging  the  results  as  before,  we  will  have : 

Third  trial  ration  for  corn-helt  dairy  cow 


Feeding  stuff 

Dry 

matter 

Dig.  crude 
protein 

Total  dig. 
nutrients 

Cost 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 

Clover  hay,  12.0  lbs 

Corn  silage,  36.0  lbs 

Corn,  dent,  3.5  lbs 

Cottonseed  meal,  1.5  lbs 

Distillers'  grains,  dried,  2.0  lbs. 
Wheat  bran,  1  0  lb 

Lbs. 

10.45 
9.47 
3.13 
1.39 
1.87 
0.90 

Lljs. 

0.912 

0.39  G 

0.202 

0.555 

0.448 

0.125 

Lbs. 

G.108 

6.372 

3.000 

1.173 

1.778 

0.609 

Cents 
7.20 
6.30 
3.50 
2.55 
3.10 
1.25 

Total     

27.21 

2.698 

19.040 

23.90 

1:6.1 

This  ration,  which  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:6.1,  costs  about  1  cent 
more  than  the  preceding  ration.  The  concentrate  mixture  will  be 
preferred  by  many  dairymen,  for  it  is  more  bulky,  weighing  1.1  lbs. 
per  quart.  Whether  this  ration  will  produce  enough  more  milk  to 
pay  for  the  increased  cost  will  depend  on  how  pronounced  is  the  dairy 
temperament  of  the  particular  cow  getting  the  ration. 

A  cotton-belt  ration  for  milk  production. — In  the  preceding  exam- 
ple, corn  among  the  concentrates  and  corn  silage  among  the  rough- 
ages furnished  total  digestible  nutrients  most  cheaply.     Therefore, 


ECONOMY  IN  FEEDING  LIVE  STOCK  111 

the  greater  the  amount  of  protein-rich  feeds  used  in  the  ration,  the 
higher  was  the  cost.  Often  conditions  are  just  opposite  to  this.  For 
example,  let  us  suppose  that  a  southern  dairyman  has  the  following 
concentrates  available :  ground  corn  at  $30,  oats  at  $35,  and  cotton- 
seed meal  at  $25.  By  computing  the  cost  per  pound  of  total  digestible 
nutrients,  as  on  Page  108,  it  will  be  found  that  at  these  prices  cotton- 
seed meal,  which  is  extremely  rich  in  protein,  furnishes  total  digest- 
ible nutrients  most  cheaply.  Accordingly  the  cheapest  ration  that 
could  be  computed  would  be  one  in  which  cottonseed  meal  was  the 
only  concentrate  fed. 

However,  it  is  not  safe  to  feed  cows  such  a  large  amount  of  cotton- 
seed meal  as  this  would  require.  Cottonseed  meal  is  not  only  poison- 
ous when  fed  in  too  large  amounts,  but  it  is  too  rich  in  protein  and 
too  heavy  to  be  fed  as  the  sole  concentrate  to  dairy  cows.  It  would 
therefore  be  necessary  to  substitute  feeds  which  were  lower  in  protein 
and  bulkier  for  some  of  the  cottonseed  meal,  even  tho  this  would 
slightly  increase  the  cost  of  the  ration. 

II.    Adapting  Systems  of  Feeding  to  Local  Conditions 

Amount  of  protein  to  supply. — The  illustrations  given  in  the  pre- 
ceding articles  show  clearly  that  rations  should  be  adapted  to  the  local 
conditions.  Feeding  standards  set  forth  approximately  the  amount 
of  protein  and  total  nutrients,  which,  it  is  believed,  should  be  fur- 
nished for  the  maximum  production  of  flesh,  milk,  work,  etc.,  and  for 
maintaining  the  highest  well-being  of  the  animal.  It  will  be  noted 
that  in  the  Modified  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  a  range  is  indicated 
in  the  amount  of  digestible  ct"ude  protein  advised  for  most  classes  of 
animals.  For  example,  for  2-year-old  steers  on  full  feed  from  2.0  to 
2.3  lbs.  of  digestible  crude  protein  per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight  are  recom- 
mended for  the  first  50-60  days  of  fattening.  When  protein-rich 
feeds  cost  but  little  or  no  more  than  carbonaceous  feeds,  it  is  well  to 
feed  at  least  as  much  protein  as  indicated  by  the  higher  figures.  On 
the  other  hand,  when  corn  or  the  other  grains  are  relatively  cheap  it 
may  be  better  economy  to  feed  no  more  protein  than  called  for  by  the 
lower  figures.  For  example,  corn  and  clover  hay  alone  make  a  fairly 
well-balanced  ration  for  fattening  cattle  and  sheep.  However,  the 
gains  are  usually  slightly  increased  and  a  higher  finish  secured  when 
a  small  allowance  of  some  suitable  nitrogenous  concentrate  is  added 
to  the  ration.  Whether  such  addition  will  be  profitable  or  not  de- 
pends on  the  prices  of  the  feeds  and  on  whether  the  market  will  pay 
a  better  price  for  the  more  highly  finished  animal.  Rarely  is  it  ad- 
visable to  feed  a  materially  smaller  allowance  of  protein  than  the 
lower  figures,  for  the  production  will  be  thereby  lowered. 


112 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


AVhen  protein-rich  feeds  are  cheaper  than  those  carbonaceous  in 
character,  as  in  the  cotton  belt  and  the  alfalfa  districts  of  the  West, 
it  will  be  economy  to  feed  much  more  than  the  minimum  amounts  of 
protein  set  forth  in  the  standards.  However,  protein  should  not  be 
supplied  in  such  excess  as  to  injure  the  health  of  the  animals. 

Proportion  of  concentrates  and  roughages. — To  meet  the  stand- 
ards for  fattening  cattle  and  sheep  and  for  milch  cows,  fairly  liberal 
amounts  of  concentrates  are  required.  When  concentrates  furnish 
total  digestible  nutrients  nearly  as  cheaply  as  do  roughages  it  is  ad- 
visable to  feed  as  large  a  proportion  of  concentrates  as  is  called  for 
bv  the  standards.     On  the  other  Jiand,  in  many  of  the  alfalfa  districts 


Fig.  29. — Fattening  Beef  Cattle  on  Grass  in  ^he  Corn  Belt 

On  high-priced  land,  with  few  acres  nnsiiited  for  tillage,  the  stockman  has  gen- 
erally found  it  more  profitable  to  fatten  feeder  cattle  brought  from  the  ranges 
than  to  raise  his  own  feeders. 


of  the  West,  grain  is  usually  high  in  price  compared  with  alfalfa  hay. 
Here  it  may  be  more  profitable  to  restrict  the  grain  allowance,  even 
tho  gains  are  slower. 

With  dairy  cows  much  depends  on  the  productive  capacity  of  the 
animal.  Except  when  concentrates  are  unusually  high  in  price,  the 
cow  of  good  dairy  temperament  will  pay  for  at  least  a  fair  amount  of 
concentrates.  On  the  contrary,  for  a  cow  of  low  productive  capacity 
the  most  economical  ration  may  be  silage  and  legume  hay  with  no  con- 
centrates. 

Roughing  growing  animals  thru  the  winter. — The  recommenda- 
tions of  the  standards  for  growing  cattle  and  sheep  are  based  upon 
continuous  thrifty  growth,  and  hence  call  for  a  limited  allowance  of 
concentrates  in  addition  to  roughage.    The  breeder  of  pure-bred  ani- 


ECONOMY  IN  FEEDING  LIVE  STOCK  113 

mals  who  wishes  to  develop  the  best  there  is  in  his  y.oung  stock  will 
feed  the  concentrates  needed  to  keep  them  growing  rapidly.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  western  beef  producer  may  find  it  most  profitable  to 
carry  young  stock  thru  the  winter  on  roughage  alone  or  with  but  a 
small  allowance  of  concentrates.  Thus  fed,  they  will  gain  in  frame, 
and,  tho  losing  in  flesh,  will  be  thrifty  enough  in  the  spring  to  make 
good  gains  on  the  cheap  pasturage. 

Finish  animals  to  meet  demands  of  the  market. — The  wise  stock- 
man will  keep  in  close  touch  with  the  demands  of  the  market  and  ad- 
just his  feeding  operations  accordingly.  If  the  market  pays  a  suf- 
ficient premium  for  thoroly  fattened  animals,  he  will  finish  his  stock 
well  before  marketing  them.     On  the  other  hand,  for  local  markets 


l£L._ 

» 

m 

M^ 

H 

Bm 

wm 

iiif," 

r 

Hi«e-wtd«s«wiw-^. 

:4 

l^v 

Fig.  30, — ^A  Beef  Farm  in  Northeastern  Kansas 

On  this  farm  the  bottom  lands  are  in  corn  and  the  sloping  hillsides  in  hay, 
while  the  broken  limestone  hills  in  the  background  are  suitable  for  pasture. 
Here  beef  calves  are  raised  and  also  fattened  for  market.  (From  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.) 

which  pay  no  more  for  a  prime  carcass  than  for  one  carrying  less  fat, 
it  will  not  pay  to  prolong  the  fattening  process  or  to  feed  as  heavy  an 
allowance  of  concentrates  as  is  necessary  to  make  the  carcass  "ripe," 
or  thoroly  fat. 

Adapt  type  of  farming  to  local  conditions.— It  is  outside  the  field 
of  this  volume  to  discuss  in  detail  the  many  factors  which  the  stock- 
man should  take  into  consideration  in  deciding  the  type  of  live-stock 
husbandry  in  which  to  engage  and  the  systems  and  methods  to  follow. 
The  foregoing  paragraphs  serve  to  illustrate  how  the  farm  operations 
and  practices  should  be  suited  to  local  conditions,  taking  into  consid- 
eration prices  of  land  and  labor,  nearness  to  market,  and  available 
crops.    For  example,  the  beef  producer  on  high-priced  land  in  the 


114  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

eastern  part  of  the  corn  belt  will  generally  crowd  his  calves  to  rapid 
growth  on  a  heavy  allowance  of  grain  and  fatten  them  as  baby  beef. 
Or  he  will  raise  no  cattle,  but  fatten  feeder  steers  from  the  western 
ranges  on  a  liberal  allowance  chiefly  of  corn.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
the  West,  where  pasture  is  cheap  compared  with  grain,  the  stockman 
will  usually  follow  a  less  intensive  system,  roughing  his  growing  stock 
thru  the  winter  and  marketing  them  from  grass  as  2-  or  3-year-olds, 
having  been  fed  little  grain  at  any  time. 

Milk  for  our  cities  must  come  from  the  surrounding  districts  which 
are  within  shipping  distance.     Dairymen  maintaining  herds  on  hig'.i- 


FiG.  31. — ^Beef  Cattle  on  the  Western  Range 

In  the  range  districts  of  tlie  West  pasturage  is  cl\eap,  but  concentrates  are  high 
in  price.  Hence  beef  cattle  are  raised  on  the  range  and  sold  as  feeders  to  be 
fattened  in  the  corn  belt  or  other  grain  raising  districts.  (From  Breeder's 
Gazette. ) 

priced  land  to  meet  this  demand  properly  tend  to  use  a  minimum 
acreage  as  pasture,  relying  largely  on  corn  silage  or  soilage  during 
the  summer  months.  They  often  buy  much  of  their  concentrates,  for 
grain  can  be  produced  on  land  farther  from  market  and  shipped  in 
at  less  expense  than  it  may  be  possible  to  grow  it  on  their  farms. 
Such  a  system  is  not,  however,  economical  for  the  dairyman  remote 
from  the  large  markets,  whose  milk  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
butter  or  cheese.  He  must  adopt  a  less  intensive  system  of  dairying, 
where  the  herd  is  maintained  largely  on  pasture  in  the  summer,  since 
with  him  land  is  relatively  less  expensive  than  labor. 

The  student  will  realize  as  he  goes  on  in  this  book  that,  while  there 
are  no  hard  and  fast  rules  for  successfully  managing  live  stock,  a  clear 
understanding  of  the  principles  of  the  nutrition  of  animals  is  essen- 
tial to  the  highest  success.     This  must  be  supplemented  by  good  judg- 


ECONOMY  IN  FEEDING  LIVE  STOCK  115 

ment  and  by  a  thoro  knowledge  of  the  farm  animals  themselves,  which 
can  only  be  gained  by  actual  experience.  He  will  further  find  that 
expensive  buildings  for  housing  stock  and  complex  devices  for  feed- 
ing and  caring  for  them  are  not  necessary;  that  there  are  no  ''best" 
feeds  for  all  conditions;  that  elaborate  and  laborious  preparation  of 
feed  is  often  wasted;  that  patent  stock  foods  guaranteed  to  w^ork 
miracles  enrich,  not  the  farmer,  but  the  manufacturer. 

On  the  other  hand,  he  will  come  to  appreciate  that  a  proper  bal- 
ancing of  the  rations  for  his  stock  not  only  benefits  the  animals,  but 
also  increases  his  profits;  that  comfort  for  farm  stock  can  be  secured 
in  inexpensive,  easy  ways,  and  that  the  operations  of  preparing  and 
administering  feed  are  really  simple  when  once  understood.  He  will 
further  come  to  the  deep  and  fundamental  realization  that  animal 
husbandry  under  normal  conditions  is  most  successful  when  combined 
with  general  farming  and  the  raising  of  farm  crops ;  that  it  rests 
upon  pasture  lots  which  are  fertilized  so  as  to  produce  abundant 
forage  and  upon  tilled  fields  which  are  so  managed  that  the  fertility  is 
maintained  and  bumper  crops  are  grown,  a  large  part  of  which  is 
marketed  thru  the  animals  of  the  farm. 

Having  discussed  in  the  preceding  chapters  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples governing  the  rational  feeding  and  care  of  the  various  classes 
of  farm  animals,  let  us  now  consider  in  detail  the  value  of  the  many 
different  feeding  stuffs  for  live  stock. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Using  local  prices  for  feeds,  see  if  you  can  find  instances  where  the  market 
price  of  a  feed  does  not  represent  its  actual  feeding  value  compared  with  oilier 
feeds  which   are  available. 

2.  Find  the  local  prices  for  at  least  six  concentrates  and  four  roughages 
suitable  for  feeding  dairy  cows,  and  compute  the  cost  per  pound  of  digestible 
crude  protein  and  total  digestible  nutrients,  as  on  Page  108.  Using  this  data, 
compute  the  cheapest  ration  which  will  be  well  balanced  and  satisfactory  in 
other  respects  for  a  1,000-lb.  cow  producing  25  lbs.  of  4  per  ct.  milk  daily. 

3.  How  would  you  adapt  the  amount  of  protein  in  the  ration  to  local  con- 
ditions? 

4.  When  would  you  feed  less  concentrates  than  called  for  in  the  feeding 
standards? 

.5.  Under  what  conditions  would  you  rough  growing  beef  cattle  thru  the 
winter? 

6.  Discuss  other  ways  in  which  you  would  adapt  your  type  of  farming  to 
local  conditions. 


Part  II 
FEEDING  STUFFS 


CHAPTER  IX 

LEADING  CEREALS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS 

I.     Corn  and  Its  By-Products 

The  prime  importance  of  Indian  corn,  or  maize,  as  a  grain  crop  in 
the  United  States  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  acreage,  in  total  yield, 
and  in  value,  it  exceeds  all  other  cereals  combined.  Corn  is  grown  in 
every  state  of  the  Union,  but  flourishes  best  in  the  great  region  be- 
tween the  Appalachians  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  Plateau.  .A  heat 
loving  plant,  it  thrives  best  where  the  nights  are  warm  during  the 
growing  season. 

Corn  as  a  feed. — Corn  is  the  great  energizing,  heat-giving,  fat-fur- 
nishing feed  for  the  animals  of  the  farm.  No  other  cereal  yields,  on 
a  given  space  and  with  a  given  ex- 
penditure of  labor,  so  much  food 
in  both  grain  and  forage.  On  mil- 
lions of  farms  successful  animal 
husbandry  rests  upon  this  imperial 
crop. 

The  corn  grain  is  pre-eminently 
a  carbohydrate  bearer,  every  100 
lbs.  containing  over  70  lbs.  of 
nitrogen-free  extract,  which  is 
nearly  all  starch.  In  addition, 
corn  is  higher  than  all  the  other 
common  cereals  in  fat,  or  oil,  con- 
taining 5  per  ct.  of  this  energy-rich 
nutrient.  Due  to  this  abundance 
of  starch  and  oil,  it  excels  as  a 
fattening  feed.  Being  so  rich  in  corn, 
carbohydrates,    corn    is    naturally 

low  in  crude  protein.     Moreover,  the  crude  protein  is  somewhat  un- 
balanced, more  than  half  of  it  consisting  of  a  single  kind  which  lacks 

117 


R 

^^^^Vb^^l 

■■Ki 

^ 

Fig.  32. — The  King  op  Cereals 

On  millions  of  farms  the  success  of 
animal  husbandry  depends  largely  on 


118  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

some  of  the  amino  acids  necessary  for  animal  growth.  Corn  is  also  un- 
usually low  in  mineral  matter,  especially  lime  (calcium),  which  is 
needed  in  large  amounts  by  growing  animals.  Indeed,  there  is  but  0.2 
lb.  of  lime  in  1,000  lbs.  of  the  grain.  In  feeding  corn  we  must  bear  in 
mind  these  important  facts  concerning  its  composition,  and  correct  its 
deficiencies  by  supplementing  it  with  feeds  high  in  protein  and  cal- 
cium. Fortunately,  the  legume  hays,  as  alfalfa  and  clover,  are  rich  in 
the  lacking  nutrients,  and  go  far  toward  balancing  a  heav}^  allowance 
of  corn.  For  fattening  cattle  and  sheei3  corn  and  legume  hay  alone 
malve  quite  a  satisfactory,  well-balanced  ration. 

A  possible  explanation  of  the  great  fondness  of  farm  animals  for 
corn  lies  in  its  richness  in  oil.  Again,  on  mastication  the  kernels 
break  into  nutty  particles  which  are  more  palatable  than  meal  from 
tlie  wheat  grain,  for  example,  which  turns  to  a  sticky  dough  in  the 
mouth. 

The  corn  grain  is  the  chief  basis  of  the  production  of  beef,  pork, 
and  mutton  thruout  the  corn  belt.  For  all  classes  of  fattening  ani- 
mals corn  may  form  most  of  the  concentrate  allowance,  only  sufficient 
of  such  protein-rich  feeds  as  linseed  meal,  cottonseed  meal,  or  wheat 
bran  being  added  to  balance  the  ration.  Corn  meal  is  excellent  for 
dairy  cows,  when  mixed  with  feeds  which  are  bulkier  and  richer  in 
protein.  Trials  have  shown  that  when  fed  to  work  horses  in  properly 
balanced  rations  corn  is  a  satisfactory  substitute  for  oats.  With  grow- 
ing and  breeding  animals  it  is  especially  necessary  that  corn  be  sup- 
plemented by  feeds  which  contain  an  abundance  of  protein  and  mineral 
matter..  The  manner  in  which  corn  should  be  used  for  feeding  the 
various  classes  of  animals  is  discussed  in  detail  in  the  respective  chap- 
ters of  Part  III. 

While  corn  should  be  ground  for  dairy  cows,  such  preparation  does 
not  generally  pay  for  horses  or  pigs.  When  pigs  follow  fattening 
cattle  to  pick  up  the  grain  that  escapes  mastication  and  digestion,  the 
steers  are  most  commonly  fed  ear  or  snapped  corn,  or  even  shock  corn. 
Sheep  with  good  teeth  can  always  grind  their  own  corn. 

Races  and  types  of  corn. — Three  races  of  corn — dent,  flint,  and 
sweet — are  of  interest  to  the  stockman.  In  dent  corn  the  starch  is 
partly  hornlike  and  partly  floury,  rendering  the  kernel  easy  of  mas- 
tication. In  flint  corn  the  starch  is  mostly  hornlike  and  flinty,  mak- 
ing the  kernel  more  difficult  for  the  animal  to  crush.  There  is  but 
little  difference  in  the  composition  of  dent  and  flint  com,  and  they 
have  the  same  feeding  value.  Chemical  analysis  and  experience  op- 
pose the  assertion,  often  heard,  that  yellow  corn  is  more  nutritious 
than  white,  or  the  opposite.  In  fact,  the  coloring  matter  of  yellow 
corn  is  so  minute  in  quantity  as  to  be  unweighable. 


LEADING  CEREALS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS  119 

In  sweet  corn  the  starch  is  hornlike  and  tough.  Before  hardening, 
the  milky  kernels  of  this  race  carry  much  glucose,  which  is  changed  to 
starch  as  they  mature  into  the  shrunken  grain.  Sweet  corn  has  some- 
what more  crude  protein  and  fat  and  less  carbohydrates  than  the 
other  races. 

The  length  of  the  growing  season  exerts  a  deep  influence  upon  the 
type  of  corn.  In  the  South  the  tropical  corn  stems,  4  or  5  months 
from  planting,  carry  great  ears  burdened  with  grain  so  high  that  a 
man  can  only  touch  them  by  reaching  far  above  his  head.  At  the 
other  extreme,  the  Mandan  Indian  in  the  country  of  the  Red  River 
of  the  North  developed  an  early  maturing  race  which  reached  only  to 
the  shoulders  of  the  squaw,  with  tiny  ears  borne  scarcely  a  foot  from 
the  ground  on  pigmy  stalks. 

Storage  and  shrinkage  of  ear  corn. — While  old  ear  corn  rarely 
contains  over  12  per  ct.  of  water,  freshly  husked  corn  may  contain  36 
per  ct.  Ear  corn  carrying  20  per  ct.  or  more  of  water  will  rarely 
keep  if  any  considerable  (juantity  is  stored  together.  On  twisting 
such  ears  they  will  be  found  to  be  loose  grained  and  "sappy."  Corn 
is  stored  mostly  on  the  husked  ear  in  the  North,  but  in  the  South  the 
husks  are  left  on  the  ears  because  of  the  weevil,  a  beetle  that  lives  in 
the  kernels  unless  they  are  protected.  Shelled  corn  does  not  keep 
well  in  bulk,  especially  in  the  summer,  and  so  corn  is  held  in  ear 
form  as  long  as  possible. 

Seventy  lbs.  of  dry  dent  ear  corn  of  good  varieties  yields  1  bushel, 
or  56  lbs.,  of  shelled  corn,  but  in  the  early  fall  buyers  frequently  de- 
mand 75  or  80  lbs.,  according  to  the  estimated  water  content.  Flint 
varieties  have  a  larger  proportion  of  cob  to  grain  than  does  dent  corn. 

Soft  corn.— Corn  frosted  before  the  grains  mature  contains  too 
much  water  for  storage  or  shipment,  and  is  best  utilized  by  immediate 
feeding.  Soft  corn  has  been  fed  successfully  to  swine,  and  for  steers 
a  pound  of  dry  matter  in  soft  corn  is  equal  in  feeding  value  to  a 
pound  of  dry  matter  in  hard  corn. 

A  late-maturing  variety  of  corn  should  not  be  planted  in  a  locality 
having  a  short  growing  season,  with  the  hope  of  getting  a  larger  yield. 
The  corn  will  usually  not  mature,  there  is  great  danger  of  its  heating 
and  molding,  and  the  shrinkage  is  large.  As  has  been  shown  in 
Chapter  I,  the  most  rapid  storage  of  food  in  the  corn  kernels  takes 
place  when  they  are  approaching  maturity. 

Corn  meal;  corn  chop;  corn  feed-meaL — The  term  corn  meal,  as 
applied  to  feeding  stuffs,  is  most  correctly  used  for  the  entire  ground 
corn  grain,  from  which  the  bran,  or  hulls,  have  not  been  removed  by 
bolting.  In  preparing  corn  for  human  food  the  grain  is  ground 
coarsely  and  the  fine  sif tings  and  also  the  bran  are  removed.     The 


120  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

milled  product,  which  is  likewise  called  com  meal,  has  a  more  attrac- 
tive appearance  than  the  entire  ground  grain,  but  contains  somewhat 
less  protein  and  fat.  Much  of  the  commercial  corn  meal,  particularly 
in  the  Mississippi  valley,  is  made  from  the  part  of  the  kernel  left 
after  the  manufacture  of  cracked  corn  or  table  meal.  It  is  most  cor- 
rectly called  corn  feed-meal,  and  is  equal  in  feeding  value  to  com 
meal  from  the  entire  grain.  Corn  chop  is  a  name  sometimes  applied 
to  ground  corn,  and  also  to  mixtures  of  ground  corn  and  corn  by- 
products. On  grinding  corn  the  oil  it  carries  soon  becomes  rancid 
and  gives  the  meal  a  stale  taste.  Hence  this  grain  should  never  be 
ground  far  in  advance  of  use. 

Corn  cobs;  corn-and-cob  meal. — When  ear  corn  is  ground  the 
product  is  called  corn-and-cob  meal.  Because  of  the  rubber-like  con- 
sistency of  the  cobs,  much  power  is  required  to  reduce  ear  corn  to 
meal.  If  the  cob  particles  in  corn-and-cob  meal  are  coarse,  the  animal 
will  not  usually  eat  them,  but  when  finely  ground  corn-and-cob  meal 
proves  satisfactory  with  most  farm  animals.  Corn  cobs  contain  over 
30  per  ct.  fiber  and  furnish  little  more  digestible  nutrients  than  oat 
straw.  Any  benefit  from  including  the  cobs  in  grinding  is  therefore 
not  due  chiefly  to  the  nutrients  the  cobs  furnish,  but  to  the  fact  that 
they  make  the  meal  more  bulk3^  This  causes  it  to  lie  loosely  in  the 
stomach,  thus  aiding  the  action  of  the  digestive  fluids.  If  the  cost  of 
grinding  is  small,  corn-and-cob  meal  may  be  preferable  to  corn  meal 
when  fed  with  heavy  concentrates,  especially  for  dairy  cows  and 
horses.     Including  the  cobs  is  not  profitable  for  sheep  or  pigs. 

Composition  of  the  corn  kernel. — Before  discussing  the  value  of 
the  various  corn  by-products  resulting  from  the  manufacture  of 
human  food,  it  will  be  helpful  to  consider  the  composition  of  the 
different  parts  of  the  corn  kernel.  The  floury  starch  in  the  middle 
of  the  kernel  forms  nearly  half  the  total  weight.  Over  80  per  ct.  of 
this  portion  is  starch,  with  but  7  per  ct.  crude  protein,  less  than  1 
per  ct.  fiber,  and  but  a  trace  of  fat  and  ash.  The  hornlike  starch  at 
the  sides  and  base  of  the  kernel,  which  forms  about  one-fourth  of  its 
weight,  likewise  consists  mostly  of  starch,  but  carries  more  protein 
than  the  floury  starch.  The  hulls  and  tip  caps,  which  make  up  7 
per  ct.  of  the  kernel,  are  also  composed  largely  of  carbohydrates,  tho 
containing  less  starch  and  about  15  per  ct.  fiber.  The  hornlike  gluten 
(8  per  ct.  of  the  kernel),  just  under  the  hull,  is  rich  in  crude  protein, 
and  the  germ  (12  per  ct.  of  the  kernel)  is  high  in  crude  protein,  ash, 
and  fat. 

Starch  and  glucose  by-products. — In  the  manufacture  of  commer- 
cial starch  and  glucose  from  corn,  the  grain  is  cleaned  and  then 


LEADING  CEREALS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS 


121 


softened  by  soaking  in  warm  water,  slightly  acidified  with  sulfurous 
acid.  Next  it  is  coarsely  ground  and  the  mass  passed  into  tanks  con- 
taining "starch  liquor."  Here  the  germs,  which  are  lighter  on 
account  of  the  large  amount  of  oil  they  carry,  rise  to  the  surface,  and 
are  removed.     After  washing,  the  residue  is  then  finely  ground,  and 


Fig.  33. — Diagram  op  a  Kernel  op  Dent  Corn 

A,  Hull;  b,  hornlike  gluten;   c.  floury  starch;   d,  horny  starch;   e,  embryo,  or 
germ;  f,  embryo  stem;  g,  embryo  root;  h,  tip  cap. 


the  coarser  part,  the  bran,  separated  by  silk  sieves.  The  remainder, 
called  "starch  liquor,"  which  contains  the  starch,  gluten,  and  fine 
particles  of  fiber,  is  then  passed  slowly  thru  shallow,  slightly  inclined 
troughs  where  the  starch  settles  like  wet  lime,  while  the  lighter  ingre- 
dients— the  gluten,  fiber,  etc. — are  carried  off  in  the  current  of  water. 
In  this  process  there  are  thus  obtained,   (1)   the  germ,  from  which 


122  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

corn  oil  and  germ  oil  meal  are  secured,  (2)  the  bran,  consisting  of 
the  hulls,  (3)  the  starch,  and  (4)  the  gluten.  The  bran,  together  with 
some  light  weight  and  broken  germs,  was  formerly  dried  and  sold  as 
corn  hran.  Now,  however,  the  bran  and  gluten  are  usually  united 
while  still  wet,  and  then  dried  and  ground,  the  product  being  sold  as 
corn  gluten  feed,  or  corn  starch  hy-product  with  corn  hran,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called.  The  term  corn  gluten  feed  is  used  to  distinguish 
this  feed  from  ''Continental  Gluten  Feed,"  a  proprietary  name  for 
certain  dried  distillers'  grains. 

Corn  gluten  feed. — Gluten  feed  contains  about  25  per  ct.  crude  pro- 
tein, 7  per  ct.  fiber,  53  per  ct.  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  4  per  ct.  fat. 
It  is  thus  a  protein-rich  feed.  The  ash  content  ranges  from  less  than 
1  per  ct.  to  5  or  6  per  ct.,  depending  on  whether  the  steep  water  in 
which  the  corn  is  softened  is  evaporated  and  the  residue  added  to  the 
gluten  feed  or  not.  This  residue  consists  of  such  substances  as  the 
soluble  protein  and  phosphates  which  are  dissolved  out  of  the  kernels 
during  the  soaking  process.  Gluten  feed  is  extensively  used  for  dairy 
cows.  As  it  contains  about  9  per  ct.  more  digestible  crude  protein  and 
also  furnishes  more  total  digestible  nutrients  than  wheat  bran,  it  is 
worth  considerably  more  than  this  feed.  It  may  also  be  satisfactorily 
fed  to  beef  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  to  supplement  carbonaceous  con- 
centrates. 

Gluten  meal. — This  by-product,  now  sometimes  called  corn  hy- 
product  without  corn  hran,  is  one  of  the  richest  of  concentrates  in 
crude  protein  and  fat,  while  ^0.h'  in  carbohydrates  and  low  in  mineral 
matter.  It  is  a  heavy  feed,  ami,  as  mentioned  before,  is  usually  mixed 
with  corn  bran  to  form  gluten  feed. 

Germ  oil  meal. — The  corn  germs  removed  in  the  manufacture  of 
starch  are  dried,  crushed,  and  much  of  the  oil  pressed  out,  leaving  the 
residue  in  cakes.  This  is  exported  as  corn  oil  cake,  or  ground  and 
sold  in  this  country  as  germ  oil  meal  or  corn  germ  meal.  This  feed 
contains  somewhat  less  protein  than  the  usual  gluten  feed,  but  carries 
a  much  larger  amount  of  fat. 

Hominy  feed,  meal,  or  chop. — This  by-product,  variously  called 
hominy  feed,  hominy  meal,  or  hominy  chop,  is  a  mixture  of  the  bran, 
the  germ,  and  a  part  of  the  starchy  portion  of  the  corn  kernel  obtained 
in  the  manufacture  of  hominy  or  brewers '  grits.  It  is  a  carbonaceous 
feed,  similar  to  corn  in  composition,  but  somewhat  bulkier,  slightly 
lower  in  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  considerably  higher  in  fat.  In 
feeding  value  it  is  equal  to  corn  meal  and  has  the  advantages  of  being 
kiln  dried  and  keeping  better  in  storage.  As  it  is  bulkier  than  corn 
meal,  it  is  preferred  for  dairy  cattle,  and  it  has  also  proven  superior 
to  corn  meal  for  fattening  pigs. 


LEADING  CEREALS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS  123 

II.    Wheat  and  Its  By-Products  in  Milling 

Due  to  its  wide-spread  use  for  human  food,  wheat  is  commonly  too 
high  in  price  to  be  fed  in  any  considerable  amount  to  stock.  How- 
ever, wheat  which  is  frosted,  shrunken,  or  otherwise  damaged  can  be 
profitably  utilized.  Tho  the  market  price  of  such  grain  is  low,  it  is 
often  equal  to  wheat  of  good  quality  for  feeding.  Salvage  grain, 
slightly  charred  or  damaged  by  smoke,  may  also  have  its  value  for 
stock  feeding  but  little  injured. 

Wheat  as  a  feed. — Compared  with  corn,  wheat  carries  slightly  more 
carbohydrates  in  the  form  of  starch,  is  higher  in  crude  protein  and 
mineral  matter,  and  contains  much  less  fat.  Tho  wheat  is  richer  than 
corn  in  protein,  the  protein  is  unbalanced  in  composition,  as  in  corn. 


1 

■ 

1 

1 

T^^^^^H 

H^) )  % 

i^^^^^^H  vfl^^^H 

■KPs     if 

K^^^^^^^^^^Bl 

1 

^B'^fll 

^w-'t«| 

if^>j;pf^:  ^^^-"'--'^ 

1 

n 

Fig.  34. — Heads  of  Different  Types  of  Wheat 

From  left  to  right:  1,  bearded  winter  wlieat  (Turkey  Red)  ;  2,  beardless  spring 
wheat  (Blue  Stem);  3,  bearded  spring  wheat  (Velvet  Chaff);  4,  Durum,  or 
macaroni  wheat;  5,  club  wheat. 

Like  corn,  wheat  should  be  supplemented  by  feeds  rich  in  protein  and 
lime.  Fed  in  properly  balanced  rations,  it  is  about  equal  to  corn  for 
dairy  cows,  beef  cattle,  sheep,  and  pigs.  It  should  not  be  fed  in  large 
amounts  to  horses,  as  it  may  cause  digestive  disturbances.  Since  the 
kernels  are  small  and  hard,  wheat  should  be  ground,  or  better,  crushed 


124  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

or  rolled,  except  for  sheep.  Finely  ground  meal  or  wheat  flour  forms 
a  pasty  mass  in  the  mouth,  which  can  be  prevented  by  mixing  with  it 
such  materials  as  bran  or  coarse  corn  meal. 

There  is  no  appreciable  difference  in  feeding  value  between  spring 
and  winter  wheat.  Durum  or  macaroni  wheat,  extensively  grown  in 
the  northern  plains  states,  has  practically  the  same  composition  and 
feeding  value  as  ordinary  wheat. 

Flour  manufacture. — The  wheat  kernel  is  covered  with  three  straw- 
like  coats  or  skins.  Beneath  these  comes  the  aleurone  layer,  high  in 
crude  protein.  The  germ,  or  embryo  plant,  in  each  kernel  is  rich  in 
oil,  crude  protein,  and  mineral  matter.  The  remainder  of  the  kernel 
consists  of  thin-walled  cells  packed  with  starch  grains.  Among  the 
starch  grains  are  protein  particles  called  ''gluten,"  that  give  wheat- 
flour  dough  the  tenacity  needed  in  bread  making.  In  producing  flour 
the  miller  aims  to  secure  all  the  starch  and  gluten  possible  from  the 
wheat  grains,  while  avoiding  the  bran,  which  makes  the  flour  brownish, 
and  the  germs,  which  soon  turn  rancid  and  injure  the  keeping  quality. 

In  modern  milling,  flour  is  produced  by  passing  the  thoroly  cleaned 
wheat  thru  a  series  of  steel  rollers,  each  succeeding  pair  being  set  a 
little  nearer  together,  so  that  the  kernels  are  gradually  crushed  into 
smaller  and  smaller  particles.  The  flour  is  removed  by  sifting  or 
passing  the  material  over  bolting  cloth,  and  finally  only  the  by- 
products remain.  These  form  25  to  33  per  ct.  of  the  weight  of  the 
entire  grain. 

The  names  of  the  various  mill  products  differ  somewhat  in  various 
sections  of  tbe  country,  but  those  most  commonly  used  are  given  in 
the  articles  which  follow. 

Wheat  bran. — Bran,  which  consists  of  the  outer  coatings  of  the 
wheat  kernel  together  with  the  aleurone  layer,  is  one  of  the  most 
popular  of  the  cereal  by-products  for  stock  feeding.  It  is  fairly  rich 
in  digestible  protein,  and  is  fair  in  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat. 
It  is  a  most  palatable  feed,  and,  being  bulky,  is  excellent  to  mix  with 
such  heavy  concentrates  as  corn,  wheat,  or  barley  meal.  It  also  has  a 
beneficial  laxative  effect,  due  to  a  certain  phosphorous  compound. 
Bran  from  mills  lacking  machinery  for  perfect  separation  of  the  starch 
from  the  bran  coats  is  somew^hat  lower  in  protein  and  correspondingly 
higher  in  starch  than  bran  from  large  mills.  The  difference  in  feed- 
ing value  is  but  slight. 

Bran  is  rich  in  phosphorus,  needed  in  large  amounts  by  growing 
animals  and  those  producing  milk,  but  it  is  deficient  in  calcium  (lime). 
Due  to  this  lack,  horses  heavily  fed  on  bran  sometimes  suffer  from 
"bran  disease,"  which  seriously  affects  their  bones.  When  large 
amounts  of  bran  are  used,  it  should  therefore  be  fed  with  feeds  rich 


LEADING  CEREALS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS 


125 


in  lime,  such  as  legume  hay,  or  lime  may  be  supplied  as  ground  lime- 
stone or  wood  ashes. 

Owing  to  its  bulky  nature  and  also  because  it  is  often  high  in 
price  compared  with  other  con- 
centrates, bran  is  not  com- 
monly fed  to  farm  animals  as 
the  only  concentrate,  but  is 
mixed  with  other  feeds  to  add 
volume  or  to  balance  rations 
low  in  protein.  Its  richness  in 
protein  and  phosphorus,  and 
its  beneficial  laxative  action 
make  it  valuable  as  part  of  the 
concentrate  allowance  for  dairy 
cows,  breeding  animals  of  all 
classes,  and  young,  growing 
animals.  With  all  horses  it  is 
useful,  especially  on  idle  daj^s, 
because  of  its  bulk  and  laxa- 
tive effect.  It  is  frequently 
supplied  at  least  once  a  week 
in  the  form  of  a  bran  mash, 
wet  or  steamed.  It  is  too  bulky 
and  too  laxative  to  form  a 
large  part  of  the  ration  for 
hard-worked  horses.  Bran  is 
often  mixed  with  corn  and 
other  heavy  concentrates  in 
starting  fattening  cattle  or 
sheep  on  feed.  It  is  valuable 
for  brood  sows  not  getting  pas- 
ture or  legume  hay,  tho  too 
bulky  for  young  pigs  or  fatten- 
ing hogs. 

Due  to  its  widespread  popu- 
larity, bran  is  often  high  in 
price     compared     with     other 

nitrogenous  concentrates  which  can  be  used  with  equally  good  results 
and  many  of  which  carry  more  protein. 

Wheat  middlings. — Middlings  vary  in  quality  from  red  dog  flour, 
which  contains  considerable  flour,  to  standard  middlings,  or  shorts, 
which  may  contain  but  little.  To  some  extent  standard  or  irown 
middlings  and  shorts  are  interchangeable  terms.     Standard  wheat 


Fig.  35. 


-DiAGRAk  OF  Wheat 
Kernel 


A,  three  bran  coats;  b,  aleurone  layer; 
c,  cells  filled  with  starch  grains;  d,  em- 
bryo, or  germ;  e,  embryo  leaves;  f,  em- 
bryo root.      (Partially  after  Neumann.) 


126  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

middlings  comprise  the  finer  bran  particles  with  considerable  flour 
adhering.  Shorts  too  often  consist  of  ground-over  bran  and  the 
sweepings  and  dirt  of  the  mills,  along  wnth  ground  or  unground  weed 
seeds.  Flour  or  white  middlings  are  of  somewhat  higher  grade  than 
standard  middlings,  for  they  contain  considerable  low-grade  flour  and 
carry  slightly  more  crude  protein  and  less  fiber.  Middlings  are  highly 
useful  with  swine  of  all  ages.  They  should  not  be  fed  alone,  but 
always  with  more  carbonaceous  feeds,  as  corn  or  barley.  Mixed  with 
other  feeds  they  are  satisfactory  for  dairy  cows.  IMiddlings  may  also 
be  fed  to  horses  in  small  amounts  when  mixed  w^ith  other  feeds  to 
avoid  colic. 

Red  dog  flour. — Ked  dog  flour,  or  dark  feeding  flour,  generally  con- 
tains the  wheat  germs  and  is  therefore  rich  in  crude  protein  and  fat. 
Such  flour  differs  little  in  composition  and  feeding  value  from  the  best 
flour  middlings. 

Wheat  mixed  feed. — "Wheat  mixed  feed,  or  shipstuff,  is,  strictly 
speaking,  the  entire  mill  run  of  the  residues  of  the  wheat  kernel  left 
after  separating  the  commercial  flour.  The  term  is  also  used  for 
various  mixtures  of  bran  and  red  dog  flour  or  middlings.  The  value 
of  wheat  mixed  feed  will  depend  on  the  proportions  of  bran,  middlings, 
and  flour  present,  a  good  grade  being  superior  to  wheat  bran. 

Screenings. — In  cleaning  and  grading  wheat  at  the  elevators  and 
mills,  there  remain  great  quantities  of  screenings,  consisting  of  broken 
and  shrunken  wheat  kernels  having  high  feeding  value,  mixed  with 
weed  seeds  and  more  or  less  trash.  The  weed  seeds  differ  widely  in 
feeding  value  and  different  lots  of  screenings  var}^  in  the  proportions 
of  wheat  and  trash  contained.  The  best  heavy  screenings  are  but  little 
inferior  to  wheat.  Farmers  who  seek  to  keep  their  land  free  from 
noxious  weeds  should  see  that  before  feeding  the  screenings  are  finely 
ground  to  kill  all  weed  seeds.  Screenings  are  now  mostly  used  along 
with  molasses  and  various  other  bj^-products  in  the  manufacture  of 
proprietary  feeding  stuffs.  The  feed  control  laws  of  several  states 
require  that  when  screenings  are  present  in  feeds  the  fact  be  indicated 
on  the  label  and  in  some  cases  the  percentage  must  be  stated. 


III.     Oats  and  Their  By-Products 

Next  to  corn,  oats  are  the  most  extensively  grown  cereal  in  the 
United  States.  The  oat  grain  is  richer  than  corn  in  crude  protein, 
and  contains  nearly  as  much  fat.  Due  to  the  woody  hull,  it  contains 
over  10  per  ct.  fiber,  with  correspondingly  less  nitrogen-free  extract 
than  corn  or  wheat,  and  accordingly  is  lower  in  digestible  nutrients 
and  net  energy.     The  hulls  of  oats  form  from  20  to  45  per  ct.  of  their 


LEADING  CEREALS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS 


127 


total  weight,  the  average  being  about  30  per  et.  As  light-weight  oats 
contain  more  hull  and  less  kernel  than  plump,  heavy  oats,  their  feeding 
value  per  pound  will  be  correspondingly  less.  To  increase  the  weight 
per  bushel  and  thus  make  the  oats  appear  to  be  of  a  higher  grade,  the 
hulls  are  sometimes  "clipped"  at  the  pointed  end  by  machines. 

Oats  as  a  feed. — Owing  to  their  bulky  character,  oats  are  the  safest 
of  all  feeds  for  the  horse,  in  this  respect  being  in  contrast  to  corn. 
Because  of  the  mettle  so  characteristic  of  the  oat-fed  horse,  it  was  long 
held  that  there  is  a  stimulating  substance  in  the  oat  grain.     All  claims 


h'lG.  86. — Heads  of  Oats,  Emmer,  and  Spelt 

From  left  to  riglit:   1,  Variety  of  oats  with  open  or  spreading  panicle;  2,  side 
oats;  3,  emmer;  4,  spelt. 

of  the  discovery  of  this  compound  have,  however,  melted  away  on 
careful  examination,  and  rations  containing  no  oats  have  given  as 
good  results  as  where  oats  were  fed.  For  dairy  cows  there  is  no  better 
grain  than  oats,  but  their  use  is  restricted  by  their  high  price.  Oats 
are  often  mixed  with  heavy  concentrates  in  starting  fattening  cattle 
and  sheep  on  feed.  As  fattening  progresses  more  concentrated  feeds 
should  be  substituted  for  all  or  most  of  the  oats.  Ground  oats  with 
the  hulls  sifted  out  provide  a  most  nourishing  and  wholesome  feed 
for  young  calves  and  pigs.  For  breeding  swine,  whole  oats  in  limited 
quantity  are  always  in  place. 


128  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

In  recent  years  the  bleaching  of  low-grade  oats  and  barley  with 
sulfurous  acid  fumes  to  whiten  the  grain  has  become  common.  Such 
grain  should  be  avoided,  as  it  injures  the  health  of  animals  so  fed. 

Oat  by-products. — In  the  manufacture  of  oatmeal  and  other  break- 
fast foods,  after  the  light-weight  grains  are  screened  out,  the  oat  hulls 
are  removed  from  the  remainder,  a  vast  quantity  resulting.  So  com- 
pletely are  the  kernels  separated  that  the  chaff-like  hulls,  which  con- 
tain about  30  per  ct.  fiber,  are  worth  but  little,  if  any,  more  than  oat 
straw  as  a  feed.  If  fragments  of  the  kernels  adhere,  their  value  is  of 
course  thereby  improved.  The  hulls  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
various  proprietary  feeds.  The  addition  of  a  limited  amount  of  hulls 
to  a  mixture  of  heavy  concentrates  may  be  beneficial.  However,  in 
buying  mixed  feeds  one  should  not  pay  as  muc"h  for  a  low-grade  feed, 
consisting  largely  of  oat  hulls,  as  for  high-grade  concentrates. 

After  the  oats  are  hulled,  they  are  freed  from  the  small  hairs  on  the 
outer  end  of  the  kernel.  With  fragments  of  the  kernels  these  hairs 
form  the  product  called  oat  dust,  vrhich  contains  considerable  protein 
and  fat,  with  about  18  per  ct.  fiber.  This  feed  is  usually  sold  in  mix- 
tures with  other  concentrates,  as  its  light,  fluffy  nature  makes  it  unsuit- 
able to  feed  alone.  This  product  is  worth  somewhat  more  than  a  mix- 
ture of  equal  parts  of  oat  middlings  and  oat  hulls.  Oat  shorts  or 
middlings,  consisting  of  the  outside  skins  of  the  kernels,  closely 
resemble  wheat  bran  in  composition,  but  carry  more  fat.  Oat  feeds 
are  mixtures,  varying  widely  in  composition,  of  ground  oat  hulls,  oat 
middlings,  and  other  by-products ;  they  should  be  purchased  only  on 
guarantee  of  composition  and  from  reputable  dealers.  The  fiber  con- 
tent of  any  lot  indicates  the  relative  amount  of  hulls  contained. 
Clipped  oat  ty-product,  or  oat  clippings,  is  the  by-product  obtained  in 
the  manufacture  of  clipped  oats.  This  material,  which  consists  of 
chaffy  material  broken  from  the  ends  of  the  hulls,  empty  hulls,  light 
immature  oats,  and  dust,  is  used  in  various  proprietary  feeds. 

Ground  corn  and  oats. — This  feed,  variously  called  ground  corn 
and  oats,  ground  feed,  and  provender,  is  extensively  employed  in  the 
eastern  and  southern  states  for  feeding  horses  and  dairy  cows.  In 
composition  it  ranges  from  a  straight  mixture  of  good-grade  corn  and 
oats  to  one  containing  a  large  proportion  of  low-grade  materials,  such 
as  oat  hulls  and  ground  corn  cobs.  The  best  guide  to  the  purity  of  this 
feed  is  the  fiber  content ;  when  it  contains  over  7  per  ct.  fiber,  it  either 
has  been  adulterated  or  was  made  from  poor-quality  oats. 

IV.    Barley  and  Its  By-Products  in  Brev^ing 
Barley  is  the  most  widely  cultivated  of  the  cereals,  growing  in 
Alaska  and  flourishing  beside  orange  groves  in  California.     Once  the 


LEADING  CEREALS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS  129 

chief  bread  plant  of  many  ancient  nations,  it  is  now  used  almost  wholly 
for  brewing,  pearling,  and  stock  feeding.  The  hull  of  the  grain  of 
ordinary  brewing  barley  or  of  Scotch  barley  constitutes  about  15  per  ct. 
of  its  total  weight.  California  feed  barley,  grown  extensively  in  some 
sections  of  the  West,  has  more  hull  and  weighs  45  lbs.  or  less  per 
bushel;  while  the  usual  weight  of  common  barley  is  48  lbs.  Bald  or 
hulless  barley,  also  grown  in  the  western  states,  has  hard  kernels,  con- 
tains less  fiber  owing  to  the  absence  of  the  hull,  and  is  as  heavy  as 
wheat.  Barley  has  less  digestible  crude  protein  than  oats,  and  more 
than  corn.  The  carbohydrates  exceed  those  of  oats  and  fall  below 
those  in  corn,  while  the  oil  content  is  lower  than  in  either. 

Barley  as  a  feed. — On  the  Pacific  slope,  where  corn  or  oats  do  not 
flourish  in  equal  degree,  barley  is  extensively  used  as  a  feed  for  ani- 


FiG.  37. — Heads  op  Different  Varieties  of  Barley  and  of  Rye 

From  left  to  right:  1,  TAVo-rowed  barley;  2,  common  six-rowed Jbarley,  or  so- 
called  four-rowed  barley;  3,  true  six-rowed  barley;  4,  California  feed  barley;  5, 
beardless  barley;  6,  rye. 

mals.  For  horses  barley  is  slightly  less  valuable  than  oats.  This  grain 
is  the  common  feed  for  dairy  cows  in  northern  Europe.  Fed  with 
legume  hay  to  fattening  steers  and  lambs,  barley  has  given  nearly  as 
good  returns  as  corn.  In  Great  Britain  and  northern  Europe  it 
takes  the  place  of  corn  for  pig  feeding,  leading  all  grains  in  producing 
pork  of  fine  quality.     Somewhat  more   barley  than  corn  has  been 


130  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

required  for  100  lbs.  gain  with  fattening  pigs.  Owing  to  its  more 
chaffy  nature  California  feed  barley  is  lower  in  value  than  common 
barley.  Tho  higher  than  corn  in  crude  protein,  barley  is  still  decid- 
edly carbonaceous  in  character,  and  should  be  fed  with  legume  hay 
or  with  a  nitrogenous  concentrate  for  the  best  results. 

The  malting  process. — In  making  malt  the  barley  grains  are  steeped 
in  warm  water  until  soft  and  kept  warm  until  they  begin  to  sprout. 
The  amount  of  diastase,  the  enzyme  which  converts  starch  into  malt 
sugar,  now  increases  greatly,  and  when  sufficient  diastase  has  been 
formed  in  the  grain,  it  is  quickly  dried.  The  tiny,  dry,  shriveled 
sprouts  are  then  separated  from  the  grains,  and  put  on  the  market  as 
malt  sprouts.  The  dried  grains  remaining  form  7}ialt.  In  the  manu- 
facture of  beer,  the  malt,  after  being  rolled,  is  moistened  and  usually 
mixed  with  cracked  corn  which  has  been  previously  cooked.  The  dias^ 
tase  in  the  malt  now  converts  the  vstarch  in  the  corn  and  the  malt  into 
malt  sugar.  This,  together  with  some  of  the  nitrogenous  and  mineral 
matter,  is  then  extracted  from  the  mass  and  fermented  by  yeast,  which 
forms  the  alcohol  in  the  beer.  The  freshly  extracted  residue  consti- 
tutes wet  brewers'  grains,  which  on  drying  in  a  vacuum  are  called 
dried  hreivers'  grains  or  brewers'  dried  grains. 

Dried  brewers'  grains. — Dried  brewers'  grains,  which  keep  indefi- 
nitely, contain  over  70  per  ct.  more  digestible  crude  protein  and  twice 
as  much  fat  as  wheat  bran,  but  are  lower  in  carbohydrates,  which  are 
largely  pentosans.  They  are  nearly  as  bulky  as  wheat  bran.  Dried 
brewers '  grains  are  widely  fed  to  dairy  cows  and  serve  well  as  part  of 
the  concentrate  allowance  for  horses,  especially  for  those  at  hard  work, 
and  needing  an  ample  supply  of  protein.  On  account  of  their  bulk, 
they  are  not  well  suited  to  pigs. 

Wet  brewers'  grains. — Owing  to  their  volume,  watery  nature,  and 
perishable  character,  wet  brewers'  grains  are  usually  fed  near  the 
brewery.  Containing  about  75  per  ct.  water,  they  have  slightly  over 
one-fourth  the  feeding  value  of  an  equal  weight  of  dried  grains. 
Supplied  in  reasonable  quantity,  20  to  30  lbs.  per  head  daily,  and  fed 
while  fresh  in  clean,  water-tight  boxes  and  along  with  nutritious  hay 
and  other  roughage,  there  is  no  better  food  for  dairy  cows  than  wet 
brewers'  grains.  However,  the  wet  grains  should  never  be  fed  to 
dairy  cows  ufiless  extreme  care  is  taken  to  prevent  the  mangers  and 
surroundings  from  becoming  foul.  In  Europe  the  wet  grains  are  con- 
sidered excellent  for  fattening  cattle  and  swine  when  used  with  dry 
feed  and  furnishing  not  over  half  the  nutrients  in  the  ration.  On 
account  of  their  "washy"  nature,  they  are  not  commonly  used  for 
horses  and  sheep. 

Malt  sprouts. — The  tiny,  shriveled  sprouts  separated  from  the  dried 


LEADING  CEREALS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS  131 

malt  grains  form  a  bulky  feed  which  is  rather  low  in  carbohydrates 
and  fat,  but  carries  about  20  per  ct.  digestible  crude  protein,  one-third 
of  which  is  amids.  At  ruling  prices  they  are  an  economical  source  of 
protein,  but,  not  being  relished  by  stock,  should  be  given  in  limited 
quantity  mixed  with  other  concentrates.  Malt  sprouts  are  especially 
valuable  for  dairy  cows,  tho  they  will  not  usually  eat  over  2  or  3  lbs. 
daily.  In  Europe  horses  have  been  fed  as  high  as  5  to  6  lbs.  per  head 
daily  with  good  results,  and  sheep  0.5  lb.  daily  per  100  lbs.  live  weight. 
Since  malt  sprouts  swell  greatly  when  they  absorb  water,  they  should 
be  soaked  for  several  hours  before  feeding. 

Barley  feed. — This  by-product  from  the  manufacture  of  pearl  barley 
or  flour  has  about  the  same  feeding  value  as  wheat  bran,  being  some- 
what lower  in  protein  and  higher  in  nitrogen-free  extract. 

V.     Rye  and  Its  By-Products 

Rye,  the  principal  cereal  of  north  Europe,  is  not  extensively  grown 
in  America.  Tho  it  repays  good  treatment,  this  "grain  of  poverty" 
thrives  in  cool  regions  on  land  that  will  not  give  profitable  returns 
with  other  cereals.  It  furnishes  about  one-third  of  the  people  of 
Europe  with  bread,  and  when  low  in  price  or  off-grade  is  commonly 
fed  to  stock. 

Rye  and  its  by-products. — Tho  farm  animals  show  no  fondness  for 
rye,  they  take  it  willingly  when  mixed  Avith  other  feeds.  Fed  alone 
or  in  large  amounts  it  is  more  apt  to  cause  digestive  disturbances  than 
the  other  cereals.  In  northern  Europe  it  is  a  common  feed  for  horses 
and  swine.  Fed  in  large  allowance  to  cows  rye  produces  a  hard,  dry 
butter. 

The  by-products  in  the  manufacture  of  rye  flour  are  rye  'bran  and 
rye  middlings,  which  are  usually  combined  and  sold  as  rye  feed.  All 
have  about  the  same  feeding  value  as  the  corresponding  wheat  feeds, 
the  rye  feeds  containing  less  fiber  and  being  somewhat  lower  in  protein 
and  higher  in  nitrogen-free  extract. 

VI.     Emmer 

Emmer,  often  incorrectly  called  "spelt"  or  "speltz,"  was  intro- 
duced into  America  from  Germany  and  Russia.  It  is  a  member  of  the 
wheat  family,  altho  in  appearance  the  grain  resembles  barley.  Being 
drought  resisting,  emmer  is  valuable  in  the  semi-arid  regions  of  Amer- 
ica. In  1909,  12,700,000  bushels  were  grown,  mostly  in  the  northern 
plains  states. 

Emmer  as  a  feed. — In  composition  emmer  resembles  oats.  It  may 
be  fed  with  success  to  all  classes  of  farm  animals,  its  value  being  some- 


132  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

what  lower  than  corn  or  barley.  Like  oats,  it  is  rather  bulky  to  use  as 
the  sole  concentrate  for  fattening  animals,  and  gives  better  results 
when  mixed  with  corn  or  barley. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  strong  and  the  weak  points  of  corn  as  a  feed? 

2.  Discuss  the  diflferences  in  composition  and  feeding  value  of  the  three  types 
of   corn. 

3.  How  should  soft  corn  be  utilized  and  what  is  its  value? 

4.  Discuss  the  composition  of  the  different  parts  of  the  corn  grain  and  draw 
a  diagram   showing  tlieir  location  in  the  kernel. 

5.  Describe  the  manufacture  of   starch   from  corn   and  name   the   by-products 
resulting. 

6.  What  is  the  feeding  value  of  gluten  feed  and  hominy  meal? 

7.  Compare  wheat   and   corn   for   stock   feeding. 

8.  Draw    a    diagram    of    the    wheat    kernel    and    discuss    the    manufacture    of 
flour. 

9.  Discuss  the  value  and  uses  of  wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings,  red  dog  flour, 
wheat  mixed  feed,  and  wheat  screenings. 

10.  What  are  the   composition   and  value  for   feeding  of   oats,   oat   hulls,   and 
oat  middlings? 

11.  Describe    the    malting    process    and    discuss    the    feeding    value    of    barley, 
dried   brewer's   grains,   and   malt   sprouts. 

12.  What  is  the  value  for  stock  of  rye,  rye  middlings,  and  emmer? 


CHAPTER  X 

MINOR  CEREALS,  OIL-BEARING  AND  LEGUMINOUS  SEEDS 
AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS 

I.    Rice  and  its  By-Products 

The  production  of  rice  is  steadily  increasing  in  Louisiana,  Texas, 
and  Arkansas,  where  over  95  per  ct.  of  the  entire  crop  of  the  United 
States  is  produced.  Like  wheat,  this  cereal  is  used  almost  entirely  for 
human  food,  only  the  by-products  from  the  manufacture  of  polished  or 
table  rice  being  fed  to  farm  animals. 

Rice  and  its  by-products. — In  preparing  rough  rice  for  human  food, 
first  the  hulls  and  next  the  bran,  or  outer  skin  of  the  kernel,  are 
removed.  The  kernels  are  then  ''polished"  to  remove  the  creamy  out- 
side layer,  rich  in  protein  and  fat,  and  to  produce  an  attractive  lustre. 
The  resulting  floury  particles  form  rice  polish. 

Bough  rice  and  hulled  rice  are  commonly  fed  to  stock  only  when  of 
low  grade.  The  kernels  being  hard,  these  feeds  should  be  ground. 
Rough  rice  may  replace  corn  in  stock  feeding,  being  worth  about  7 
per  ct.  more  than  that  grain.  Hulled  rice  is  the  richest  of  all  cereals 
in  carbohydrates,  but  relatively  low  in  crude  protein  and  fat.  It  is 
worth  about  16  per  ct.  more  than  corn. 

Rice  hulls,  woody  and  tasteless,  should  never  be  fed  to  farm  animals, 
for  their  sharp,  roughened,  flinty  edges  and  needle-like  points  are 
irritating  and  dangerous  to  the  walls  of  the  stomach  and  intestines, 
and  may  even  cause  death.  They  are  sometimes  used  by  unscrupulous 
dealers  to  adulterate  commercial  feeding  stuffs,  and  are  even  ground 
and  sold  as  "husk  meal"  or  "Star  bran." 

Bice  hran,  when  pure,  consists  of  the  outer  layer  of  the  rice  kernel 
proper,  the  germs,  and  a  small  amount  of  hulls  not  separated  in  the 
milling  process.  When  adulterated  with  hulls,  it  is  called  "commer- 
cial bran. ' '  Unadulterated  rice  bran  is  a  highly  nutritious  feed,  con- 
taining about  as  much  protein  as  wheat,  11  per  ct.  fat,  and  not  over 
13  per  ct.  fiber.  It  may  form  half  the  concentrates  for  horses  and 
mules,  is  satisfactory  for  fattening  steers,  and  may  be  fed  to  dairy  cows 
and  pigs  as  part  of  the  concentrates.  Too  large  an  amount  injures  the 
milk  of  dairy  cows  and  produces  soft  pork  in  pigs.  The  fat  in  rice 
bran  soon  becomes  rancid,  and  the  feed  may  then  be  distasteful  to 
stock. 

133 


134 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


Rice  polish,  equal  to  corn  in  feeding  value,  carries  slightly  more 
protein  and  considerably  more  fat,  but  correspondingly  less  nitrogen- 
free  extract. 


Fig.  38. — A  Field  op  Rice  in  Arkansas 

Eice  is  usually  grown  on  low,  level  o;round  under  irrigation,  tho  certain  varieties 
can  be  grown  on  upland  without  irrigation.  Note  that  this  field  is  flooded. 
(From  The  Southivest  Trail,  Rock  Island  Lines.) 

II.     Sorghums  and  Millets 

Numberless  millions  of  people  in  India,  China  and  Africa  rely  on 
the  sorghums  and  millets  for  their  bread.  In  India  more  land  is 
devoted  to  growing  these  crops  than  to  wheat,  rice,  and  Indian  corn 
combined.  In  Africa  the  sorghums  are  the  one  ever-present,  crop,  from 
tropical  jungle  to  desert  oasis  and  mountain  valley. 

The  sorghums. — The  sorghums  may  be  divided  into  two  classes^ 
the  saccharine  sorghums,  having  stems  filled  with  sweet  juices,  and  the 
non-saccharine  or  grain  sorghums,  with  more  pithy  stems  and  sour  or 
only  slightly  sweet  juice.  The  Indian  corn  plant  never  gives  satisfac- 
tory returns  if  its  growth  is  once  checked.  The  sorghums  may  cease 
growing  and  their  leaves  shrivel  during  periods  of  excessive  heat  and 
drought ;  yet  when  the  soil  becomes  moist  again,  they  quickly  resume 


MINOR  CEREALS 


135 


growth.  This  group  of  plants  is  thus  of  vast  importance  as  grain 
crops  for  the  southern  portion  of  the  semi-arid  plains  region.  Between 
1899  and  1909  the  acreage  in  the  United  States  of  kafir  and  milo  grown 
for  grain  increased  from  266,000  to  1,635,000  acres. 

Most  of  the  grain  sorghum  produced  in  the  United  States  is  grown 
in  the  Great  Plains  region,  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  extending 
from  southwestern  Nebraska  to  northwestern  Texas,  a  limited  amount 
also  being  grown  in  Arizona,  Utah,  and  California.     Thruout  much  of 


Heads  op  Different  Types  op  Grain  Sorghums 


From  left  to  right:  1  and  2,  yellow  milo;  3,  white  Kaoliang:  4,  brown  Kaoliang 
5,  feterita;  G,  red  kafir;  7,  pink  kafir;  8,  black-hnlled  kafir.  (From  Breeder'. 
Gazette.) 


the  grain  sorghum  belt  these  crops  are  more  sure,  and,  even  on  good 
soil,  give  larger  yields  than  corn.  The  grain  sorghums  commonly 
yield  25  bushels  per  acre,  with  maximums  of  75  bushels  for  kafir,  46  for 
milo,  and  80  for  feterita.^ 

Grain  sorghums  as  feeds. — The  non-saccharine,  or  grain,  sorghums 
include  'kafir,  milo,  feterita,  kaoliang,  and  the  less  important  diirra  and 
shallii.     The  seeds  of  the  various  sorghums  are  similar  in  composition, 

1  Piper,   Forage  Plants,  p.  273. 


136  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

carrying  about  as  much  protein  and  nitrogen-free  extract  as  corn,  but 
1.5  per  ct.  less  fat.  Properly  supplemented  with,  protein-rich  feeds, 
they  are  excellent  for  all  classes  of  animals.  Tho  less  palatable  than 
corn,  their  nutritive  value  ranges  from  fully  equal  to  this  grain  to 
15  per  ct.  less.  For  horses,  fattening  cattle,  dairy  cows,  and  pigs  the 
grain  is  usually  ground,  being  then  called  "chop."  Grinding  for 
sheep  is  unnecessary.  Often  the  unthreshed  heads  are  fed,  or  the 
forage  carrying  the  heads  is  supplied,  especially  to  idle  horses,  colts, 
and  young  stock.  The  product  obtained  by  grinding  the  entire  heads, 
called  "head  chop,"  resembles  corn-and-cob  meal  in  composition. 

Kafir. — The  kafirs  lead  the  sorghums  in  both  grain  and  forage  pro- 
duction in  eastern  Kansas  and  Oklahoma.  They  are  stout-stemmed, 
broad-leaved  plants,  having  slightly  sweet  juice  and  long,  erect,  cylin- 
drical heads  carrying  small  egg-shaped  seeds.  The  kafirs  do  not 
sucker,  nor  do  they  lodge  or  shatter  the  grain.  In  good  seasons  and 
on  fertile  soil  yields  of  50  bushels  or  over  are  secured.  As  kafir  grain 
is  astringent  and  constipating,  it  is  best  fed  with  alfalfa  or  clover  hay, 
or  other  laxative  feeds. 

Milo. — Next  to  kafir,  milo  is  the  most  important  of  the  grain 
sorghums.  It  is  less  leafy  than  kafir,  and  hence  is  not  as  valuable  for 
forage.  The  heads  are  short  and  thick,  goose-necked  in  most  varieties, 
and  with  large  flat  seeds.  As  it  is  earlier,  milo  outyields  kafir  in  the 
extreme  west  of  the  sorghum  belt.  Unlike  kafir,  milo  has  a  slight  laxa- 
tive effect. 

Feterita. — This  type  has  erect  heads  and  slender  stems  with  more 
leaves  than  milo  but  less  than  kafir.  It  yields  as  much  grain  as  kafir, 
tho  less  forage,  and  is  of  importance  for  the  eastern  part  of  the  grain 
sorghum  belt.     Unfortunately,  it  stools  and  lodges  badly. 

Kaoliang. — These  early-maturing  sorghums  from  northern  China 
are  especially  suited  to  the  northern  plains  district,  where  the  other 
types  will  not  mature.  The  kaoliangs  yield  as  much  grain  as  the  milos 
and  will  stand  drought  better,  but  the  forage  is  scanty  and  of  poor 
quality,  the  stalks  being  pithy  and  the  leaves  few. 

Sweet  sorghumjf. — The  sweet  sorghums,  or  sorghos,  are  forage  rather 
than  grain  producers,  and  are  therefore  discussed  more  fully  in  Chap- 
ter XII.  For  grain  production  they  are  surpassed  by  corn  in  the 
humid  regions  and  by  the  grain  sorghums  in  the  plains  districts.  The 
seed  is  not  as  palatable  nor  of  as  high  feeding  value  as  kafir  or  milo. 

Millets. — The  millets  chiefly  grown  in  this  country  are :  ( 1 ) ,  the 
foxtail  millets,  all  resembling  common  foxtail  or  pigeon  grass  in 
appearance;  and  (2),  the  broom  corn,  proso,  or  hog  millets,  which  have 
spreading  or  panicled  heads,  wide  hairy  leaves,  and  large  seeds.  The 
forage  types  are  considered  in  Chapter  XIII.     In  humid  regions  mil- 


OIL-BEARING  SEEDS  AND  BY-PRODUCTS  137 

lets  are  chiefly  sown  in  early  summer  as  catch  crops,  owing  to  the  short 
period  required  for  growth.  In  the  northern  plains  district,  where 
The  growing  season  is  too  short  for  the  sorghums,  they  are  of  increasing 
importance  for  grain  production.  The  yields  reported  range  from 
16  to  over  30  bushels  per  acre.  Ground  millet  seed  has  been  success- 
fully used  for  fattening  cattle,  lambs,  and  pigs,  tho  usually  of  some- 
what  lower  value  than  corn. 

III.    Buckwheat  and  its  By-Products 

Altho  rarely  used  for  feeding  stock,  buckwheat  has  a  fair  value  for 
such  purpose,  its  nutrients  running  somewhat  lower  than  those  in  the 
leading  cereals. 

Buckwheat  by-products. — The  black,  woody  hulls  of  the  buckwheat 
grain  have  little  feeding  value.  On  the  other  hand,  buckwheat  mid- 
dlings, that  part  of  the  kernel  immediately  under  the  hull,  which  is 
separated  from  the  flour  on  milling,  contains  28  per  ct.  crude  protein 
and  7  per  ct.  fat,  with  little  fiber,  and  is  equal  to  dried  brewers'  grains 
in  value.  To  dispose  of  the  hulls,  millers  usually  mix  them  with  the 
middlings,  selling  the  combination  as  huclicheat  bran  or  feed.  The 
value  of  such  feed  depends  entirely  on  how  much  hulls  are  present. 
This  can  be  told  from  the  amount  of  fiber  it  contains.  Buckwheat 
by-products  are  nearly  always  used  for  dairy  cows,  but  should  not  be 
fed  as  the  only  concentrate  or  the  quality  of  the  milk  may  be  injured. 

IV.     Oil-Bearing  Seeds  and  their  By-Products 

The  annual  crop  of  cotton  in  the  United  States  now  amounts  to  over 
34,000,000  bales  of  500  lbs.  each,  with  not  less  than  7,000,000  tons  of 
cotton  seed  as  a  by-product,  since  for  each  pound  of  fiber,  or  lint,  there 
are  2  lbs.  of  seed.  Before  1860  the  seed  of  the  cotton  plant  was  largely 
wasted  by  the  planters,  who,  ignorant  of  its  worth,  often  allowed  it  to 
rot  near  the  gin  house,  while  meat  and  other  animal  products  which 
might  have  been  produced  from  it  were  purchased  at  high  cost  from 
northern  farmers.  The  utilization  of  the  cotton  seed  and  its  products 
as  food  for  man  and  beast  furnishes  a  striking  example  of  what  science 
is  accomplishing  for  agriculture. 

Cotton  seed. — The  cotton  seed  carries  about  19  per  ct.  fat,  or  oil, 
and  nearly  20  per  ct.  crude  protein.  Formerly  much  seed  was  fed  in 
the  South,  especially  to  steers  and  dairy  cattle.  Now  little  is  fed 
before  the  oil  is  extracted,  both  on  account  of  the  value  of  the  oil  and 
because  cottonseed  meal  usually  gives  better  results.  Owing  to  the 
high  oil  content,  cotton  seed  sometimes  has  an  unduly  laxative  effect. 
"Wet,  moldy  cotton  seed  or  that  which  has  heated  should  never  be  fed. 


138 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


Cottonseed  cake  and  meal.— At  the  oil  mills  the  leathery  hulls  of 
the  cotton  seed,  which  are  covered  with  short  lint,  are  cut  by  machinery, 
and  the  oily  kernels  set  free.  These  kernels  are  crushed,  heated,  placed 
between  cloths,  and  subjected  to  hydraulic  pressure  to  remove  the  oil. 
The  residue  is  a  hard,  yellowish,  board-like  cake  about  1  inch  thick,  1  ft. 
wide,  and  2  ft.  long.  For  the  trade  in  the  eastern  and  central  states 
the  cake  is  generally  ground  to  a  fine  meal,  for  the  western  trade  it  is' 
often  broken  into  pieces  of  pea  or  nut  size  for  cattle  and  coarsely 


Fig.  40. — Pickers  in  a  Field  of  Cotton 

Over  2.500,000  tons  of  cottonseed  meal  are  produced  annually  in  this  country 
as  a  by-product  of  the  cotton  crop.  Used  rightly,  this  rich  concentrate  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable  feeds  for  stock.      (From  Louisville  and  Nashville  Railroad.) 


ground  for  sheep,  while  the  export  cake  is  commonly  left  whole.  For 
feeding  out  of  doors  the  broken  cake  is  preferable  to  meal  as  it  is  not 
scattered  by  the  wind.  Unadulterated  cottonseed  meal  of  good  quality 
should  have  a  light  yellow  color  and  a  sharp,  nutty  odor.  A  dark  or 
dull  color  may  be  due  to  age,  to  adulteration  with  hulls,  to  overheating 
during  the  cooking  process,  or  to  fermentation — all  of  which  injure  its 
feeding  value. 

Cottonseed  meal  is  one  of  the  richest  of  all  feeds  in  protein  and 
carries  over  8  per  ct.  of  fat.  Since  the  protein  and  fiber  content  vary 
considerably,  depending  chiefly  on  how  thoroly  the  hulls  are  removed 


OIL-BEARING  SEEDS  AND  BY-PRODUCTS  139 

from  the  meal,  manufacturers  and  feed  control  officials  have  agreed  on 
the  following  classification : 

Choice  cottonseed  meal  must  be  perfectly  sound  and  sweet  in  odor,  yellow, 
not  brown  or  reddish,  free  from  excess  of  lint,  and  must  contain  at  least  41 
per   ct.   of  crude  protein. 

Prime  cottonseed  meal  must  be  of  sweet  odor,  reasonably  bright  in  color,  and 
must  contain  at  least  38.6  per  ct.  of  crude  protein. 

Good  cottonseed  meal  must  be  of  sweet  odor,  reasonably  bright  in  color,  and 
must  contain  at  least  36  per  ct.  of  crude  protein. 

Cottonseed  feed  is  a  mixture  of  cottonseed  meal  and  cottonseed  hulls,  con- 
taining less  than  36  per  ct.  crude  protein. 

Owing  to  its  wide  variation  in  composition,  cottonseed  meal  should 
be  purchased  on  guarantee  whenever  possible. 

Cottonseed  feed. — On  northern  markets  cottonseed  feed,  consisting 
largely  of  hulls,  is  often  sold  for  only  a  little  less  than  choice  cotton- 
seed meal.  Yet  average  cottonseed  feed  contains  but  24.5  per  ct.  crude 
protein,  and  is  thus  worth  only  60  per  ct.  as  much  as  choice  cottonseed 
meal.  Since  it  is  impossible  to  tell  finely  ground  cottonseed  feed  from 
the  best  cottonseed  meal  by  its  appearance  alone,  the  wise  feeder  will 
always  buy  cottonseed  meal  from  reliable  dealers. 

Cold-pressed  cottonseed  cake. — Cold-pressed  cottonseed  cake,  or 
"caddo"  cake,  is  produced  by  subjecting  the  entire  uncrushed, 
unheated  seed  to  great  pressure.  In  this  cake  there  is  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  hull  to  meal  than  in  the  usual  cottonseed  meal,  with  correspond- 
ingly lower  feeding  value.  This  product  is  usually  sold  in  nut  or  pea 
size  but  is  sometimes  ground  to  a  meal.  The  crude-protein  content  of 
cold-pressed  cake  is  a  reliable  guide  to  its  feeding  value. 

The  poison  of  cotton  seed. — Experience  and  scientific  trials  unite  in 
showing  that  cotton  seed  or  cottonseed  cake  or  meal  is  not  always  a 
safe  feed.  After  about  100  days  steers  closely  confined  and  heavily 
fed  on  meal  often  show  a  staggering  gait,  some  become  blind,  and  death 
frequently  ends  their  distress.  Cottonseed  meal  is  most  poisonous  to 
swine.  Pigs  getting  as  much  as  one-third  of  their  concentrates  in  the 
form  of  cottonseed  meal  thrive  at  first,  but  after  a  few  weeks  they 
become  sick  and  may  die. 

During  the  past  20  years  numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  find 
the  cause  of  the  poisonous  effect,  and  many  different  reasons  have  been 
advanced  by  scientists.  Further  work  has,  however,  failed  to  prove 
that  the  fatal  effect  is  due  to  any  of  the  causes  assigned.  Recently, 
Withers  of  the  North  Carolina  Station  ^  has  attributed  the  poisonous 
quality  to  a  substance  called  "gossypol, "  which  is  formed  in  certain 
cells  of  the  seed.     It  is  to  be  hoped  that  further  work  may  reveal 

2  Jour.  Agr.   Res.,  5,    1915,  pp.  261-88. 


140  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

methods  by  which  this  rich  feed  can  be  used  with  safety  for  all  classes 
of  animals. 

Feeding  cottonseed  meal  and  cake. — Cottonseed  meal  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  of  feeds  when  properly  fed,  often  being  the  cheapest 
available  source  of  protein,  and  thru  it,  of  nitrogen  for  maintaining 
soil  fertility.  It  does  not  have  the  beneficial  laxative  effect  of  linseed 
meal,  but  instead  is  somewhat  constipating.  ]\Iore  care  is  necessary 
in  feeding  it,  tho  when  given  in  proper  combination  with  other  feeds 
equally  good  results  may  be  secured  with  dairy  cows,  horses,  fattening 
cattle  and  sheep  as  with  linseed  meal.  The  amounts  which  may  be 
safely  fed  to  each  kind  of  stock  are  fully  discussed  in  the  respective 
chapters  of  Part  III.  The  most  extensive  use  of  cottonseed  meal  is  by 
dairymen,  for  comparatively  heavy  allowances  may  be  fed  to  milch 
cows  without  harm.  Fed  in  too  large  amounts,  cottonseed  meal  pro- 
duces hard,  tallowy  butter,  light  in  color  and  poor  in  flavor.  A  limited 
quantity  has  little  effect,  and  is  even  helpful  with  cows  whose  milk 
produces  a  soft  butter. 

For  fattening  steers  and  sheep  cottonseed  meal,  in  limited  amount, 
is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  of  nitrogenous  supplements.  Great 
numbers  of  steers  are  fattened  at  the  oil-mill  factories,  often  on  a 
ration  of  6  to  8  lbs.  of  cottonseed  meal  with  cottonseed  hulls  or  corn 
silage  for  roughage.  In  restricted  amounts,  mixed  preferably  with 
bulky  feed,  cottonseed  meal  has  been  fed  to  horses  and  mules  with 
entire  success.  Altho  cottonseed  meal  is  especially  poisonous  to  swine, 
some  feeders,  guided  by  experience,  use  it  in  small  amounts  and  for 
short  periods  with  little  loss.  Calves  are  easily  affected  by  its  poison- 
ous properties.  Cottonseed  meal  having  a  dull  color  due  to  improper 
storage,  and  that  from  musty  and  fermented  seed  should  never  be  used 
for  feeding  stock. 

This  most  nutritious  feed,  the  richest  in  fertilizing  constituents  of 
all  our  common  feeds  of  plant  origin,  is  often  spread  directly  on  the 
land  as  a  fertilizer  in  some  parts  of  the  country.  To  secure  the  full 
value,  the  meal  should  first  be  fed  to  animals  and  the  resulting  manure 
applied  to  the  soil. 

Cottonseed  hulls. — Cottonseed  hulls,  which  contain  somewhat  less 
digestible  nutrients  than  oat  straw,  are  extensively  employed  in  the 
South  as  roughage  for  cattle  feeding.  Low  in  crude  protein,  but  a 
small  part  of  which  is  digestible,  they  have  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :122, 
the  widest  of  any  common  feeding  stuff.  Obviously,  they  should  be 
used  with  feeds  which  are  rich  in  protein.  Cottonseed  hulls  are  best 
suited  to  beef  cattle,  large  numbers  of  steers  being  fattened  on  cotton- 
seed hulls  and  cottonseed  meal,  with  or  without  silage.     They  are 


OIL-BEARING  SEEDS  AND  BY-PRODUCTS  141 

not  well  adapted  to  dairy  cows,  corn  stover  having  a  higher  feeding 
value. 

Flax  seed  and  linseed  oil  manufacture.— Over  95  per  ct.  of  the  flax 
seed  crop  of  the  United  States  is  produced  in  jMinnesota,  the  Dakotas, 
and  Montana.  Because  of  the  valuable  oil  it  yields,  flax  seed  is  rarely 
used  for  feeding  stock  other  than  young  calves.  Well-matured  flax 
seeds  contain  no  starch,  the  reserve  plant  food  being  stored  largely  as 
oil  and  pentosans,  instead. 

The  oil  of  the  flax  seed  is  either  extracted  by  the  "old  process," 
thru  crushing  and  pressure,  as  in  the  production  of  cottonseed  oil,  or 
by  the  "new  process,"  when  it  is  dissolved  out  of  the  crushed  seed  with 
naphtha,  the  residue  in  either  case  being  called  linseed  oil  meal,  linseed 
meal,  or  simply  oil  meal.  In  the  United  States  nearly  all  the  linseed 
oil  meal  is  made  by  the  old  process. 

In  the  manufacture  of  new-process  oil  meal  the  crushed  and  heated 
seed  is  placed  in  large  cylinders  or  percolators,  and  naphtha  poured 
over  the  mass.  This  drains  out  at  the  bottom  carrying  the  dissolved 
oil.  After  repeated  extractions  all  traces  of  the  naphtha  are  driven  off 
by  letting  steam  into  the  percolator. 

Old-  and  new-process  oil  meal. — Since  the  oil  is  extracted  much 
more  thoroly  by  the  naphtha  process,  new-process  meal  contains  only 
about  2.9  per  ct.  of  oil  or  fat,  but  carries  slightly  more  digestible  pro- 
tein. Old-process  meal  is  preferred  by  feeders,  since  it  apparently 
has  a  more  laxative  action  and  a  more  pronounced  effect  in  making  the 
coats  of  animals  soft  and  sleek,  due  probably  to  its  higher  oil  content. 

Linseed  meal  as  a  feed.— There  is  no  more  healthful  feed  for  limited 
use  with  all  farm  animals  than  linseed  cake  or  meal,  with  its  rich  store 
of  crude  protein,  slightly  laxative  oil,  and  its  mucilaginous,  soothing 
properties.  Its  judicious  use  is  soon  apparent  in  the  pliable  skin,  the 
sleek,  oily  coat,  and  the  good  handling  quality  of  the  flesh  of  animals 
receiving  it.  It  is  therefore  very  useful  as  a  conditioner  for  run-down 
animals  and  in  fitting  animals  for  shows.  A  small  amount  is  helpful  in 
the  rations  of  horses  and  dairy  cows.  Opposite  in  effect  to  cottonseed 
meal,  linseed  meal  tends  to  produce  soft  butter.  Fed  to  fattening 
cattle,  sheep,  or  swine,  the  meal  regulates  the  system  and  helps  to 
ward  off  ill  effects  from  the  continued  heavy  use  of  concentrates.  Kich 
in  protein  and  all  the  necessary  mineral  elements,  linseed  meal  is  well 
suited  to  growing  animals.  Owing  to  its  popularity,  this  feed  is  often 
expensive  compared  with  other  protein-rich  concentrates,  and  it  is 
then  not  economical  to  employ  it  as  the  chief  source  of  protein  in  the 
ration,  but  to  restrict  its  use  to  amounts  sufficient  to  produce  the 
diesired  tonic  and  regulative  effects. 


142  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Unfortunately  the  American  farmer  usually  insists  that  oil  cake  be 
ground  to  a  meal.  Except  where  it  is  desirable  to  mix  the  meal  thoroly 
with  other  concentrates,  or  feed  it  as  a  slop  to  pigs,  cake  which  has 
been  ground  only  to  nut  or  pea  size  is  preferable.  In  such  form  the 
feed  is  more  palatable,  and  there  is  less  chance  for  adulteration. 
European  farmers  buy  the  cake  in  slab  form  and  grind  it  to  nut  size 
just  before  feeding. 

Other  flax  by-products. — Flax  feed,  which  consists  of  flax  screen- 
ings, is  chiefly  used  in  mixed  feeds.  As  in  the  case  of  wheat  screenings, 
its  value  is  uncertain,  depending  on  the  relative  amounts  of  inferior 
flax  seed,  weed  seeds,  and  other  refuse.  Containing  only  half  as  much 
protein  as  linseed  meal  and  often  having  a  bitter  taste  due  to  weed 
seeds,  it  is  rarely  economical  at  the  prices  asked. 

Flax  plant  by-product,  sometimes  sold  incorrectly  as  "flax  bran," 
consists  of  flax  pods,  broken  and  immature  flax  seeds,  and  portions  of 
the  stems.  Owing  to  its  low  value,  it  is  rarely  sold  alone,  but  is  used 
as  a  "filler"  in  certain  proprietary  feeds. 

Unscreened  flax  oil-feed,  or  "laxo"  cake  meal,  is  the  by-product 
obtained  in  extracting  the  oil  from  unscreened  flax  seed.  The  value  is 
lower  than  that  of  linseed  meal,  depending  on  how  much  screenings  it 
contains. 

Soybean. — The  soybean  is  one  of  the  most  important  agricultural 
plants  of  northern  China  and  Japan.  The  bean-like  seeds,  which  carry 
from  16  to  21  per  ct.  of  oil,  are  used  for  human  food  and  for  feeding 
animals.  The  oil  is  also  used  for  human  food  and  in  the  arts,  and  the 
resulting  soybean  meal  is  employed  as  a  feed  for  animals  and  for  fer- 
tilizing the  land,  the  same  as  cottonseed  meal.  This  plant  produces 
the  largest  yield  of  seed  of  any  legume  suited  to  temperate  climates, 
tho  now  grown  in  this  country  chiefly  for  forage.  No  other  plant  so 
little  grown  in  the  United  States  at  this  time  promises  so  much  to 
agriculture  as  the  soybean,  which  not  only  yields  protein-rich  grain 
and  forage  but  builds  up  the  nitrogen  content  of  the  soil.  Soybeans 
are  adapted  to  the  same  range  of  climate  as  corn,  and,  on  account  of 
their  resistance  to  drought,  are  especially  suited  to  light,  sandy  soils. 
When  grown  for  seed,  they  commonly  yield  12  to  40  bushels  per  acre. 

The  seeds  contain  as  much  protein  and  over  twice  as  much  fat  as 
linseed  meal,  and  are  of  nearly  as  high  feeding  value  as  cottonseed 
meal.  Owing  to  their  richness  in  protein,  soybeans  should  always  be 
fed  with  carbonaceous  concentrates.  They  are  satisfactory  for  dairy 
cows  and  growing  and  fattening  stock  of  all  classes.  In  the  South 
pigs  are  often  grazed  on  the  nearly  mature  beans,  saving  the  labor  of 
harvesting.  Fed  in  large  amounts,  they  make  soft  butter  and  pork. 
Soybeans  should  be  ground  for  horses  and  cattle.     Owing  to  the  high 


OIL-BEARING  SEEDS  AND  BY-PRODUCTS  143 

price  the  seed  commands,  soybeans  have  not  yet  been  extensively  fed  to 
live  stock  in  this  country,  most  of  the  crop  being  used  for  seed  or  for 
forage.     (See  Chapter  XIV.) 

Soybean  cake  or  meal. — The  residue  after  the  oil  has  been  extracted 
from  soj'beans  carries  as  much  digestible  protein  as  choice  cottonseed 
meal,  and  furnishes  slightly  more  total  digestible  nutrients.  During 
recent  years  a  considerable  amount  has  been  imported  from  the  Orient 
to  the  Pacific  coast  states,  where  it  is  highly  esteemed  for  feeding 
poultry  and  dairy  cattle.  In  Europe  the  unground  cake  is  used  and  in 
this  country  the  meal.  Tho  high  in  price,  soybean  meal  is  greatly- es- 
teemed by  western  dairymen,  and  is  often  fed  in  large  amounts  to  cows 
on  official  tests. 

The  peanut  and  its  by-products.^The  peanut,  or  earth  nut,  is  of 
growing  importance  for  stock  feeding  in  the  southern  states.  The 
underground  seeds,  or  nuts,  are  commonly  harvested  by  turning  swine 
into  the  fields  when  the  seeds  are  ripe,  and  allowing  them  to  feed  at 
will.  While  a  heavy  allowance  of  peanuts  makes  soft  fat  and  inferior 
pork,  entirely  satisfactory  ham  and  bacon  are  produced  when  pigs  are 
fed  partially  on  peanuts.  On  exposure  to  the  air,  shelled  peanuts.spdn 
become  rancid.  The  vines  with  the  nuts  attached  may  be  gkthered/aud 
cured  into  a  nutritious,  palatable  hay  useful  with  all  kinds  of  stock. 
The  use  of  this  plant  for  stock  feeding  should  be  vastly  extended  thru- 
out  the  South. 

Peanut  meal  or  cale,  resulting  from  the  manufacture  of  peanut  oil, 
is  a  common  feed  in  Europe,  being  satisfactory  for  all  classes  of  stock. 
]Meal  from  hulled  nuts  is  richer  in  protein  than  choice  cottonseed  meail. 
But  little  peanut  meal  is  sold  in  this  country,  and  this  is  chiefly  from 
unhulled  nuts,  containing  about  28  per  ct.  protein  and.  2|!^per  cti  fiber. 

Peanut  hulls,  sometimes  ground  and  used  for  adulteratrfigfee'd^flg 
stuffs,  are  over  half  fiber  and  less  valuable  than  common  straw. 

Sunflower  seed  and  oil  cake. — The  sunflower  is  grown  in  consider- 
able quantities  in  Russia  but  has  never  assumed  any  importance  in  this 
c'ountry,  chiefly  because  corn  yields  much  more  feed  per  acre.  Oil  cake 
from  sunflower  seed  has  proved  satisfactory  for  all  classes  of  stock  in 
Europe,  being  nearly  equal  to  linseed  meal. 

Cocoanut  meal. — This  residue  in  the  manufacture  of  oil  from  the 
cocoanut  is  lower  in  crude  protein  than  the  oil  meals  previously  dis- 
cussed, but  higher  than  wheat  bran.  It  is  used  to  some  extent  by 
dairymen  in  the  Pacific  coast  states  and  produces  butter  of  good  quality 
and  firmness.  It  may  also  be  fed  with  success  to  horses,  sheep,  and 
swine.  On  account  of  its  tendency  to  turn  rancid  it  can  be  kept  but  a 
few  weeks  in  warm  weather. 


144  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

V.     Oil-free  Leguminous  Seeds 

The  Canada  field  pea. — The  common  field  or  Canada  pea  succeeds 
best  where  the  spring  and  snmmer  heat  is  moderate,  as  in  Canada,  the 
northern  states,  and  in  several  of  the  larger  Rocky  JMountain  valleys. 
No  other  widely  known  grain  plant  of  equal  possibilities  has  been  so 
generally  neglected  by  the  farmers  of  the  northern  United  States. 
Field-pea  grain  contains  twice  as  much  crude  protein  as  the  cereals 
and  is  high  in  phosphorus.     Fed  with  corn,  peas  may  form  as  much  as 


Fig.  41. — Cowpeas  Are  of  Great  Importance  to  the  Southern 
Stockman 

The  cowpea,  the  most  important  loguine  in  the  cotton  belt,  grows  on  all  types 
of  soil,  increasing  the  fertility  of  the  land  and  furnishing  rich  feed.      (From  the 

Southern  Cultivator.) 

one-half  the  concentrates  for  dairy  cows.  They  are  relished  by  horses 
and  are  excellent  for  sheep  and  pigs,  being  of  especial  value,  for  grow- 
ing and  breeding  animals. 

Cowpea. — This  bean-like  plant  from  India  and  China  holds  an 
important  place  in  southern  agriculture  because  of  its  large  yield  of 
forage,  and  early  varieties  are  now  grown  as  far  north  as  Illinois. 
Since  the  seed  pods  ripen  unevenly,  they  must  be  gathered  by  hand. 
For  this  reason  the  crop  is  mostly  used  for  hay,  silage,  and  grazing. 


OIL-FREE  LEGUMINOUS  SEEDS  145 

(See  Chapter  XIV.)     The  seed,  which  resembles  field  peas  in  composi- 
tion, may  be  fed  to  all  classes  of  animals. 

The  common  field  bean. — ]Many  varieties  of  the  common  field  bean 
are  grown  in  this  country  for  human  food,  and  the  cull  beans  damaged 
by  wet  are  used  for  animal  feeding.  They  are  fed  whole  in  large 
quantities  to  sheep,  producing  a  solid  flesh  of  good  quality.  For  swine, 
beans  should  be  cooked  in  salted  water  and  fed  in  combination  with 
corn,  barley,  etc. ;  fed  alone  they  produce  soft  pork  and  lard  with  a  low 
melting  point. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  value  of  rice  and  its  by-products  for  stock  feeding. 

2.  Why  are  the  sorghums  important  in  the  semi-arid  districts?  Into  what 
two  classes  are  they  divided? 

3.  Name  four  types  of  grain  sorghums  and  discuss  their  value. 

4.  Describe  the  process  of  making  cottonseed  oil  and  cottonseed  meal.  Into 
what  classes  is  cottonseed  meal  divided? 

5.  How  would  you  use  cottonseed  meal  in  stock  feeding? 

6.  What  is  the  difference  between  old-  and  new-process  linseed  meal? 

7.  Compare  linseed  meal  and  cottonseed  meal  as  feeds. 

8.  Discuss  the  value  of  soybeans  and  soybean  meal. 

9.  What  is  the  chief  use  of  peanuts  for  stock  feeding? 

10.  Name  three  oil-free  leguminous  seeds  and  state  their  use  for  farm  animals. 


CHAPTER  XI 

MISCELLANEOUS  CONCENTRATES— FEEDING  STUFFS 
CONTROL— CONDIMENTAL  FOODS 

I.      Cow 'S  ]\IlLK  AND  ITS  BY-PrODUCTS 

Milk  is  unexcelled  as  a  food  for  young  animals,  because  it  contains 
all  the  nutrients  in  proper  proportion  to  produce  rapid  growth.  The 
proteins  are  unusually  well-balanced  in  composition  and  are  thus  more 
efficient  for  growth  than  those  of  the  cereal  grains.  For  the  best  profits 
from  dairying,  the  by-products — skim  milk,  buttermilk,  and  whey — 
must  be  fed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  secure  their  full  value. 

Whole  milk. — Because  of  the  high  value  of  w'hole  cow's  milk  for 
human  food  it  is  not  commonly  fed  to  stock,  except  to  young  calves  for 
the  first  few  weeks.  However,  one  should  not  hesitate  to  employ  whole 
milk  for  rearing  an  orphan  foal  or  lamb  or  in  fitting  young  stock  for 
exhibition. 

Whole  milk  contains  from  2.5  to  4.0  per  ct.  protein,  which  consists 
chiefly  of  casein,  with  0.4  to  0.9  per  ct.  albumin  and  traces  of  other 
proteins.  It  carries  from  4  to  5  per  ct.  of  milk  sugar,  a  carbohydrate, 
which  is  onl}'  slightly  sweet  and  has  about  the  same  feeding  value  as 
starch.  AVhen  milk  sours,  some  of  the  sugar  is  changed  to  lactic  acid, 
which  curdles  the  casein.  As  is  shown  in  Chapter  XX,  the  fat  content 
of  cow 's  milk  varies  widely,  depending  chiefly  on  breed,  individuality, 
and  the  portion  of  the  milk  drawn,  the  strippings  being  much  the 
richest  in  fat. 

Experiments  by  Beach  at  the  Connecticut  (Storrs)  Station^  show 
that  for  calves,  lambs,  and  pigs  milk  rich  in  fat  is  less  valuable  per 
pound  of  total  diy  matter  than  milk  poor  in  fat,  or  even  skim  milk. 
Rich  milk  may  cause  digestive  troubles,  especially  with  very  young 
animals. 

Skim  milk. — Being  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter,  skim  milk 
excels  in  building  the  muscles  and  bones  of  young  animals.  Separator 
skim  milk  contains  3.8  per  ct.  protein,  5.2  per  ct.  nitrogen-free  extract, 
and  0.1  to  0.2  per  ct.  fat.  It  is  thus  a  protein-rich  feed,  having  the 
narrow  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :1.5.     Therefore,  even  for  young  animals  it 

iConn.   (Storrs)   Bui.  31. 

146 


MISCELLANEOUS  CONCENTRATES 


147 


should  be  fed  with  such  carbonaceous  feeds  as  corn,  rather  than  with 
protein-rich  feeds  like  wheat  middlings  and  linseed  meal.  Careful 
dairj^men  raise  just  as  thrifty  calves  when  skim  milk  is  gradually  sub- 
stituted for  whole  milk  during  the  first  4  to  6  weeks,  and  only  skim 
milk  given  thereafter,  as  when  ex- 
pensive whole  milk  is  fed  longer. 
For  swine,  especially  young  pigs, 
skim  milk  is  unsurpassed  as  a  sup- 
plement to  the  carbonaceous  grains. 
From  500  to  600  lbs.  of  skim  milk, 
properly  combined  with  concen- 
trates, is  equal  in  feeding  value  to 
100  lbs.  of  grain  for  pigs.  Foals 
whose  dams  furnish  insufficient 
milk  thrive  on  skim  milk.  It  may 
also  be  fed  to  horses  and  poultry. 
Skim  milk  is  most  valuable  for 
young  animals  when  it  comes  sweet 
and  warm  from  the  separator. 

Buttermilk. — This  by-product, 
much  like  skim  milk  in  composi- 
tion but  usually  richer  in  fat,  is 
about  equal  to  skim  milk  for  pigs. 
Sometimes  calves  are  reared  on  it, 
but  extreme  care  is  necessary  in  ac- 
customing them  to  it  and  in  keep- 
ing all  utensils  clean.  Buttermilk 
diluted  at  the  creamery  with  water 
has  its  value  reduced.  If  kept  in 
dirty  tanks  it  ferments  and  be- 
comes dangerous. 

Whey. — Whey  contains  the  sugar,  albumin,  and  a  large  part  of 
the  ash  of  milk,  while  the  casein  and  most  of  the  fat  go  into  the  cheese. 
As  it  contains  only  0.8  per  ct.  protein  and  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :6.8, 
whey  should  be  fed  with  protein-rich  feeds  to  young  animals.  IMore 
watery  than  skim  milk,  it  contains  only  6.6  per  ct.  dry  matter.  Whey 
is  usually  fed  to  pigs,  for  which  it  has  about  half  the  value  of  skim 
milk.  At  best,  it  is  a  poor  feed  for  calves,  and  can  be  successfully  used 
only  by  exercising  the  utmost  care  and  cleanliness.  Slightly  soured 
whey  gives  as  good  results  as  when  sweet,  but  decomposing  whey  kept 
in  filthy  vessels  is  unfit  for  stock. 

Spreading  disease  thru  dairy  by-products. — Since  milk  from  many 
farms  is  mixed  at  the  creamery  and  cheese  factory,  unless  the  skim 


Fig.  42.— Skim  ]\Iilk  Is  Ideal  for 
Young  Animals,  as  It  Is  Kioli  in 
Protein  of  the  Highest  Quality 
and  in  Mineral  Matter.  (From 
Wisconsin   Station.) 


148  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

milk,  buttermilk,  and  whey  are  thoroly  pasteurized  at  a  temperature 
of  180°  F.  before  being  taken  back  to  the  farms,  bovine  tuberculosis 
and  other  diseases  may  be  widely  spread  from  possibly  a  single  diseased 
herd.  The  pasteurized  product  also  keeps  better  and  is  less  likely  to 
produce  scours. 

A  trial  at  the  Iowa  Station  ^  shows  how  readily  tuberculosis  may  be 
spread  thru  skim  milk.  Forty  pigs,  supposedly  free  from  tuberculosis, 
were  divided  into  4  lots.  Two  lots  were  kept  on  separate  pastures  and 
two  in  dry  lots.  Corn  and  pasteurized  skim  milk  were  fed  to  all.  How- 
ever, the  germs  of  tuberculosis  were  put  into  the  milk  of  one  lot  on 
pasture  and  one  lot  in  the  yard,  just  before  feeding.  After  196  days 
the  pigs  were  slaughtered.  It  was  found  that  every  animal  in  the  2  lots 
receiving  infected  milk,  20  in  all,  was  tuberculous,  while  of  those  not 
given  infected  milk,  2  were  tuberculous  and  18  free  from  the  disease. 


II.    Packing  House  By-Products 

The  packing  house  by-products,  tankage  or  meat  meal,  meat  scrap, 
dried  blood,  and  meat-and-bone  meal,  are  extremely  rich  in  highly 
digestible,  well-balanced  protein.  Most  of  them  are  also  rich  in  cal- 
cium and  phosphorus,  since  they  contain  more  or  less  bone.  As  they 
are  high  in  price,  the  feeder  should  understand  their  nature  and  eco- 
nomical use. 

Tankage  or  meat  meal. — At  the  packing  plants  waste  meat,  scrap 
bones,  and  fat  trimmings  are  thoroly  steam-cooked  under  high  pressure. 
The  fat,  while  yet  liquid,  is  drawn  off  and  the  residue  is  then  dried  and 
ground  to  a  fine  meal.  The  resulting  tankage,  also  called  meat  meal, 
contains  from  40  to  60  per  ct.  protein  and  from  1  to  10  per  ct.  fat. 
The  variation  in  protein  is  due  chiefly  to  the  amount  of  bone  present. 
On  account  of  the  wide  range  between  different  grades,  tankage  should 
always  be  purchased  on  guarantee  of  composition,  for  the  value 
depends  primarily  on  the  protein  content.  Being  thoroly  cooked  under 
pressure,  tankage  is  sterilized,  so  that  it  cannot  carry  disease  to  animals 
fed  on  it.  In  the  manufacture  of  the  best  grades  of  tankage,  carcasses 
condemned  because  of  disease  are  not  used. 

Tankage  or  meat  meal  is  generally  fed  to  pigs  and  poultry,  ranking 
next  to  skim  milk  as  a  supplement  for  corn  and  other  carbonaceous 
grains.  Owing  to  its  richness  in  protein,  10  per  ct.  of  tankage  fed  with 
90  per  ct.  of  corn  or  other  cereals  is  sufficient  to  balance  the  ration 
for  pigs  over  100  lbs.  in  weight,  but  younger  ones  need  somewhat  more. 
Mixed  with  other  feeds,  it  may  be  fed  to  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses, 

2  Iowa  Bui.  92. 


MISCELLANEOUS  CONCENTRATES  149 

especially  eolts.  If  much  bone  is  present,  the  product  is  termed  meat- 
and-bone  meal.  This  is  used  chiefly  for  poultry.  The  lower  grades 
of  tankage  are  sometimes  adulterated  with  hair  or  peat. 

Meat  scrap. — Meat  scrap,  used  for  poultry  feeding,  consists  chiefly 
of  meat  trimmings  which  have  been  cooked  to  extract  as  much  of  the 
fat  as  possible  and  then  ground  to  varjang  degrees  of  fineness.  It 
resembles  tankage  in  composition,  the  content  of  protein  and  mineral 
matter  varj-ing  quite  widely,  clue  chiefly  to  the  amount  of  bone  present. 

Pork  cracklings. — This  residue  from  the  manufacture  of  lard  is  not 


Fig.  43. — A  Portion  op  the  Union  Stock  Yards  at  Chicago 

The  Chicago  Union  Stock  Yards  occupy  an  area  of  500  acres,  and  have  25  miles 
of  streets  and  300  miles  of  railway  tracks.  The  vards  would  hold  at  one  time 
75,000  cattle,  125,000  sheep,  300,000  hogs,  and  6,000  horses  and  mules.  Some  of 
the  large  packing  plants  may  be  seen  in  the  background  at  the  right. 

commonly  found  on  the  market  but  may  often  be  obtained  cheaply 
from  local  slaughter  houses.  Pork  cracklings  contain  over  30  per  ct. 
fat  and  about  7  per  ct.  less  protein  than  the  best  grades  of  tankage. 
They  are  fully  as  valuable  as  tankage  for  swine. 

Blood  meal. — Blood  meal  or  dried  blood  (sometimes  called  blood 
flour  when  finely  ground)  carries  over  80  per  ct.  protein,  but  no  bone, 
and  is  therefore  low  in  ash.  It  is  usually  high  in  price  and  is  not  fed 
extensively  except  to  young  pigs  or  calves  as  a  milk  substitute,  and  to 
sickly  animals.  One  to  2  lbs.  per  head  daily  has  been  found  satis- 
factory for  dairy  cows. 

Dried  fish;  fish  meal. — In  Europe  dried  fish  and  fish  meal,  which 
are  nearly  as  high  in  protein  as  tankage,  are  often  used  for  feeding 
stock.  Given  in  reasonable  amounts  to  dairy  cows,  they  have  no  bad 
effect  on  the  milk. 


150  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Bone  meal. — ^When  rations  lack  calcium  and  phosphorus,  these  vital 
mineral  nutrients  may  be  furnished  in  the  form  of  bone  meal,  also 
called  ground  bone.  Ground  rock  phosphate  is  usually  a  cheaper 
and  probably  as  effective  a  mineral  supplement.  Bone  meal  is  used 
chiefly  for  pigs  and  poultry. 

III.     Sugar  Factory  By-Products.     Other  Feeds 

In  making  beet  sugar  the  beets  are  first  washed  and  then  cut  into 
V-shaped  strips.  Next  the  juice  is  extracted,  leaving  the  by-product 
known  as  wet  deet  pulp.  The  juice  is  then  purified  and  evaporated 
until  the  sugar  crystallizes.  Finally,  the  grains  of  sugar  are  sepa- 
rated from  the  residual  molasses  by  centrifugal  force. 

Wet  beet  pulp. — This  watery  feed  which  contains  only  about  10 
per  ct.  of  solids  spoils  rapidly  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and  is  therefore 
usually  fed  as  soured  or  ensiled  pulp.  It  may  be  ensiled  in  an  ordi- 
nary silo,  in  earthen  pits,  or  in  large  heaps  above  the  ground  where 
the  decay  of  the  outside  layer  protects  the  interior  from  the  air. 
Tho  carrying  only  1  to  2  per  ct.  of  sugar,  wet  beet  pulp  contains  con- 
siderable of  other  easily  digested  carbohydrates.  Like  roots,  it  should 
be  fed  with  dry  feeds.  IMost  of  the  mineral  matter  is  extracted  from 
the  beets  along  with  the  sugar  and  the  pulp  is  also  low  in  protein. 
Therefore,  when  heavy  allowances  of  pulp  are  fed,  one  should  see  that 
the  animals  are  supplied  with  sufficient  mineral  matter  and  protein. 
Fortunately,  the  pulp  is  commonly  fed  with  legume  hay,  which  is 
high  in  both  protein  and  mineral  matter. 

Thousands  of  cattle  and  tens  of  thousands  of  sheep  are  annually 
fattened  near  the  western  beet-sugar  factories  on  wet,  soured,  beet 
pulp,  fed  with  alfalfa  hay  and  a  limited  allowance  of  grain.  The 
wet  pulp  is  also  excellent  for  dairy  cows,  producing  good-flavored 
milk  when  not  fed  in  excess.     It  may  also  be  fed  to  idle  horses. 

Dried  beet  pulp. — Many  beet-sugar  factories  are  now  equipped 
with  machinery  for  drying  the  pulp.  Dried  beet  pulp,  which  contains 
about  60  per  ct.  nitrogen-free  extract,  is  worth  nearly  as  much  as  corn 
or  barley  for  dairy  cows,  beef  cattle,  or  sheep.  Since  it  is  low  in  pro- 
tein it  should  be  fed,  like  corn,  with  protein-rich  feeds. 

Because  dried  beet  pulp  absorbs  a  great  deal  of  water,  it  is  advis- 
able to  moisten  the  dried  pulp  with  2  to  3  times  its  weight  of  water 
before  feeding,  when  large  amounts  are  used.  Sometimes  the  mois- 
tened pulp  is  fed  as  a  substitute  for  corn  silage  to  dairy  cows,  tho 
usually  the  latter  is  more  economical.  Dried  beet  pulp  is  excellent 
for  dairy  cows  on  official  test  which  are  receiving  a  heavy  concentrate 
allowance,  as  it  is  a  bulky  feed  and  also  has  a  slightly  laxative  effect. 


MISCELLANEOUS  CONCENTRATES 


151 


Beet  molasses. — Molasses  from  beet-sugar  factories,  whieli  contains 
about  66  per  ct.  nitrogen-free  extract,  nearly  all  sugar,  is  a  valuable 
carbonaceous  feed,  if  properly  used.  The  feeding  value  of  the  mo- 
lasses is  about  three-fourths  that  of  corn.  Both  beet  and  cane  molasses 
are  low  in  crude  protein,  and  the  small  amount  present  is  of  low 
nutritive  value.  Molasses  should  thus  be  used  with  protein-rich 
feeds.  Because  of  its  laxative  nature  animals  should  be  gradually 
accustomed  to  this  feed,  and  the  amount  given  daily  per  1,000  lbs.  live 
weight  should  be  limited  as  follows:     Driving  horses  may  be  fed  2.5 


Fig.  44. — Cattle  Fattening  on  Wet  Beet  Pulp  in  the  West 

The  beet  pulp  is  brought  to  the  feed  lots  on  the  tramway.     Note  the  beet- 
sugar  factory  in  the  background. 

lbs.  and  draft  horses  4  lbs.  or  even  more;  dairy  cows  up  to  3 
lbs. ;  fattening  cattle  to  8  lbs. ;  fattening  sheep  to  5  lbs. ;  and  fattening 
swine  to  10  lbs.  Breeding  animals  should  receive  less  than  fat- 
tening ones,  and  but  little  for  some  weeks  before  delivery.  Because 
of  its  sticky  nature,  the  molasses  is  usuall,y  distributed  over  hay  or 
straw,  and  large  feeders  in  the  West  use  machines  for  mixing  it  with 
cut  roughage. 

Molasses-beet  pulp. — Beet  molasses  is   sometimes   combined   with 
beet  pulp  and  dried,  forming  dried  molasses-beet  pulp.     This  feed  is 


152  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

somewhat  more  palatable  and  digestible  than  ordinary  dried  pulp  and 
has  equal  or  slightly  higher  feeding  value. 

Beet  tops. — Beet  tops,  consisting  of  the  leaves  and  upper  portion  of 
the  beet  root,  are  often  fed  either  fresh  or  ensiled  to  animals.  They 
may  be  ensiled  in  pits  or  silos  in  alternate  layers  with  straw,  or  mixed 
with  cut  dry  corn  fodder  or  stover.  The  leaves  have  about  half  the 
feeding  value  of  roots.  As  they  tend  to  purge  the  animals,  they 
should  be  fed  only  in  limited  amounts  and  always  with  dry  roughage. 
Kellner  advises  furnishing  3  ounces  of  chalk  or  ground  limestone  for 
every  100  lbs.  of  leaves,  as  otherwise  the  oxalic  acid  they  contain  may 
prove  harmful. 

Cane  molasses. — Cane  molasses,  or  blackstrap,  a  by-product  of  the 
manufacture  of  cane  sugar,  is  much  relished  by  farm  animals  and 
does  not  have  the  purging  effect  of  beet  molasses  when  fed  in  large 
amounts.  In  the  South  cane  molasses  is  often  one  of  the  cheapest 
feeds  and  is  extensively  fed  to  horses,  mules,  and  other  animals.  In 
the  North  it  is  usually  so  high  in  price  that  corn  meal  and  similar 
feeds  are  more  economical  sources  of  carbohydrates.  For  improving 
unpalatable  feeds,  as  a  tonic  for  unthrifty  animals,  and  as  a  colic  pre- 
ventive for  horses,  from  2  to  3  lbs.  of  molasses  daily  is  helpful.  Like 
beet  molasses,  blackstrap  is  largely  used  in  mixed  feeds. 

Molasses  feeds. — INIolasses  feeds  consist  of  molasses  combined  with 
a  wide  variety  of  products,  from  high-protein  feeds  like  cottonseed 
meal  to  such  low-grade,  trashy  refuse  as  peanut  hulls.  Many  contain 
screenings  but  these  are  now  usually  so  finely  ground  as  to  destroy  all 
weed  seeds.  Deception  is  easy  in  such  feeds  because  the  molasses 
masks  the  other  ingredients  and  permits  low-grade  waste  products  to 
be  sold  at  a  price  that  should  buy  high-grade  concentrates.  If  sold 
at  prices  which  are  reasonable  as  compared  with  the  cost  of  equal 
amounts  of  nutrients  in  high-grade  straight  concentrates,  nothing  can 
be  said  against  the  use  of  reliable  feeds  of  this  class.  They  should  be 
purchased  only  from  trustworthy  dealers  and  on  definite  guarantee 
of  composition.  Especial  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  fiber  guar- 
antee, for  this  shows  to  what  degree  low-grade  products  have  been 
used. 

Molassine  meal  consists  of  molasses  absorbed  by  sphagnum  moss  or 
peat.  Peat  has  no  nutritive  value  for  farm  animals  and  the  moss  but 
little.  Almost  the  only  nutriment  is  in  the  molasses,  which  can  be 
purchased  cheaper  and  mixed  with  better  roughage  on  the  farm. 

Sugar. — Tho  the  nutritive  value  of  sugar  is  no  greater  than  that  of 
starch,  animals  show  great  fondness  for  it  and  it  is  often  useful  for 
stimulating  the  appetite  and  in  fitting  animals  for  shows. 

Dried  distillers'  grains. — In  the  manufacture  of  alcohol  and  dis- 


MISCELLANEOUS  CONCENTRATES  153 

tilled  liquors  from  cereals,  after  being  ground  the  corn,  rye,  etc.,  are 
treated  with  a  solution  of  malt  to  change  the  starch  to  sugar,  which 
is  then  changed  to  alcohol  by  the  action  of  yeast.  The  alcohol  is  next 
distilled  off  leaving  a  watery  residue  known  as  distillers'  slops.  The 
solid  matter  from  this  is  dried  to  form  dried  distillers'  grains,  which 
contain  the  portions  of  the  grain  not  acted  upon  during  the  fermenta- 
tions; that  is,  the  crude  protein,  fiber,  fat  and  the  more  insoluble 
carbohydrates.  Distillers'  grains  from  corn  usually  contain  about  30 
per  ct.  protein  and  rank  between  gluten  feed  and  linseed  or  cotton- 
seed meal  in  feeding  value.  Those  from  rye  contain  about  23  per  ct. 
protein,  and  are  thus  of  considerably  lower  value. 

Because  of  their  bulky  nature  and  high  nutritive  value,  dried  dis- 
tillers' grains  are  one  of  the  best  high-protein  concentrates  for  dairy 
cows.  Not  being  especially  palatable,  they  should  be  mixed  with 
better-liked  feeds  and  the  allowance  restricted  to  2  to  4  lbs.  per  head 
daily.  Tho  the  grains  are  not  relished  by  horses,  they  may  form 
one-fourth  the  concentrate  allowance.  They  serve  well  as  part  of  the 
concentrates  for  fattening  steers  and  sheep,  but  are  too  bulky  for  ex- 
tensive feeding  to  pigs. 

Salvage  grain. — Grain  damaged  by  fire,  smoke,  or  water  in  ware- 
house fires  is  known  as  salvage  grain.  Its  value  depends  on  how 
much  it  is  damaged  and  on  the  amount  of  screenings  present. 

Cocoa  shells. — This  by-product  of  the  manufacture  of  cocoa  and 
chocolate  consists  of  the  hard  outside  coating,  or  bran,  of  the  cocoa 
bean.  The  shells,  which  are  dark  brown  and  brittle,  are  used  in  a 
few  proprietary  feeds.  They  are  of  low  digestibility  and  worth  not 
over  half  as  much  as  corn  meal. 

Proprietary  and  mixed  feeds. — There  are  now  on  the  market  a  host 
of  mixed  feeds,  chiefly  sold  under  proprietary  names.  Their  compo- 
sition differs  widely,  some  containing  only  high-grade  concentrates 
like  wheat  bran,  cottonseed  meal,  malt  sprouts,  gluten  feed,  etc. 
Others  contain  more  or  less  screenings  or  light-weight  grain,  which 
will  in  general  be  of  lower  value  than  good-quality  grain.  Most  of 
these  feeds  contain  such  low-grade  by-products  as  oat  hulls,  ground 
corn  cobs,  flax  plant  by-product,  etc.,  and  some  consist  largely  of  such 
material.  Altho  the  percentages  of  crude  protein,  fat,  and  fiber  in 
any  given  brand  are  usually  kept  at  the  same  figure  from  month  to 
month,  the  amounts  of  the  separate  ingredients  in  the  feed  are  seldom 
guaranteed.  Thus  the  feed  put  out  this  year  under  a  certain  propri- 
etary name  may  not  be  the  same  as  that  sold  next  year  under  the  same 
name  and  guarantee.  For  this  reason  practically  no  trials  to  deter- 
mine the  values  of  these  mixtures  have  been  conducted  by  the  experi- 
ment stations. 


154  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Many  mixed  feeds  are  the  result  of  honest  and  intelligent  efforts  to 
furnish  a  ready-mixed  "balanced"  concentrate  mixture  for  the  vari- 
ous classes  of  farm  animals.  Such  have  won  good  reputations  among 
intelligent  feeders.  Others  are  merely  attempts  to  delude  the  pur- 
chaser into  paying  as  much  for  mixtures  of  low-grade,  trashy  by- 
products as  high-class  concentrates  would  cost.  All  mixed  feeds 
should  be  purchased  not  on  the  strength  of  a  "fancy"  name,  but  on 
the  guarantee  of  the  amounts  of  crude  protein,  fat,  and  fiber  present 
in  the  mixture.  By  comparing  the  fiber  guarantee  with  the  fiber  con- 
tent of  well-known  unmixed  concentrates,  as  given  in  Appendix  Table 
I,  one  may  estimate  the  extent  to  which  such  refuse  as  oat  hulls  and 
ground  corn  cobs  have  been  added.  Such  materials,  high  in  fiber, 
furnish  little  nutriment,  tho  they  may  give  bulk  to  an  otherwise  heavy 
mixture.  Before  buying  mixed  feeds,  the  wise  feeder  will  compare 
the  amount  of  nutrients  he  can  secure  for  each  dollar  in  these  feeds 
and  in  the  unmixed  standard  by-products. 


IV.     Commercial  Feeding  Stuffs  Control 

Because  it  is  often  impossible  for  the  stockman  to  tell  from  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  commercial  feed  whether  it  is  of  standard  quality  or 
has  been  adulterated,  laws  have  been  enacted  to  protect  honest  dealers 
and  manufacturers  and  the  users  of  commercial  feeds  alike. 

Regulation  of  commercial  feeds. — Many  of  the  states  now  have  laws 
which  require  that  each  package  of  concentrated  feed  bear  a  label, 
tag,  or  statement  giving  the  percentages  of  crude  protein  and  fat  the 
feed  contains.  Some  states  wisely  require  that  the  maximum  amount 
of  fiber  be  guaranteed.  (This  means  that  the  feed  must  not  contain 
more  fiber  than  the  guarantee  states.)  In  others  all  ingredients  in 
mixed  feeds  must  be  stated. 

Large  users  of  commercial  feeds  are  usually  experienced  buyers 
who  purchase  only  the  better  grade  of  standard  feeding  stuffs  at 
close  prices,  or  secure  such  materials  as  screenings,  etc.,  knowing  fully 
their  composition  and  value.  It  is  the  small  buyer,  often  feeling  the 
pinch  of  poverty,  who  is  most  easily  ensnared  by  the  extravagant 
claims  and  catchy  names  of  the  low-grade,  trashy  articles.  In  his  at- 
tempt to  secure  something  that  sells  for  less  than  is  demanded  for 
standard  goods,  he  forgets  that  these  cheap  commercial  feeds  are 
really  more  like  roughages  than  concentrates,  and  roughages  can  be 
produced  on  most  farms  far  more  economically  than  they  can  be  pur- 
chased in  bags  from  the  feed  dealer.  Low-grade  feeding  stuffs,  no 
matter  what  their  names,  will  bring  hardship  to  the  animals  fed  on 
them,  and  to  the  owners  of  such  animals  as  well.     When  in  doubt  as 


MISCELLANEOUS  CONCENTRATES  155 

to  the  merits  of  a  feeding  stuff,  one  should  consult  the  feed  control 
officials  of  his  state,  or  buy  only  the  pure,  unmixed  grains,  straight 
milling  or  factory  by-products,  or  high-grade  proprietary  feeds  that 
have  won  good  reputations. 

A  guide  in  purchasing  commercial  feeds.— Before  purchasing  com- 
mercial feeding  stuffs,  the  guaranteed  composition  should  be  obtained 
and  compared  with  the  average  composition  given  for  the  same  feed  in 
Appendix  Table  I.  If  the  feed  is  much  lower  in  crude  protein  or  fat. 
or  noticeably  higher  in  fiber  than  there  shown,  it  should  be  viewed 
with  suspicion.  The  feed  should  also  be  free  from  mold  and  rancid- 
ity. 

V.      CONDIMENTAL   OR    StOCK   FOODS 

Millions  of  dollars  are  annually  spent  by  the  farmers  of  the  country 
for  various  proprietary  articles  styled  "stock  foods,"  ''condition 
powders,"  etc.,  which  often  cost  10  to  30  cents  or  more  per  pound. 

Composition  of  stock  foods.— The  better  class  of  stock  foods  have 
as  their  basis  such  substances  as  linseed  meal  or  wheat  middlings, 
while  the  cheaper  ones  contain  ground  screenings,  .low-grade  milling 
oft'al,  the  ground  bark  of  trees,  etc.  To  this  "filling,"  is  added  a 
small  percentage  of  materials  like  common  salt,  charcoal,  copperas, 
fenugreek,  gentian,  pepper,  epsom  salts,  etc.  Claims  are  made  that  a 
tablespoonful  of  the  compound  with  each  feed  will  cause  stock  to 
grow  faster,  fatten  quicker,  yield  richer  milk,  etc.,  etc.  Yet  this 
amount  supplies  only  an  insignificant  part  of  the  dose  of  these  drugs 
which  is  prescribed  for  ailing  animals  by  competent  veterinarians. 
Farm  animals  managed  with  reasonable  care  have  appetites  that  do 
not  need  stimulating.  Sick  animals  or  those  out  of  condition  require 
specific  treatment,  not  a  cure-all.  A  good  manager  of  livestock  has 
no  use  for  expensive  conditioners  and  a  poor  one  will  never  have  fine 
stock  by  using  them.  In  rare  cases  the  only  feeding  stuffs  available 
may  be  of  such  poor  quality  that  some  condiment  may  cause  the  ani- 
mals to  eat  more  heartily,  and  where  animals  are  in  low  condition 
some  spice  may  prove  helpful.  To  cover  such  cases  the  formula  for 
two  "stock  foods"  or  "spices"  are  presented  below: 

First  formula  Lbs.                 Second  formula  Lbs. 

Fenugreek    2  Ground   gentian    4 

Allspice     2  Powdered    saltpeter     1 

Gentian     4  Ground   ginger    1 

Salt    5  Powdered   copperas    1 

Saltpeter     5 


alts    10 

Linseed    meal    100 


156  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

In  the  first  formula  linseed  meal  is  not  necassary  if  the  other  in- 
gredients are  thoroly  mixed,  and  a  tablespoonful  given  with  each 
meal,  along  with  some  rich  concentrate,  like  linseed  meal,  wheat  mid- 
dlings, or  ground  oats.  At  ordinary  prices  this  formula  can  be  made 
up  for  about  5  cents  per  pound,  or  one-fourth  what  is  charged  for 
something  no  better.  The  second  formula  should  be  given  at  the  rate 
of  one  tablespoonful  daily  mixed  with  the  feed  for  10  days,  then  omit 
for  3  days,  and  give  again  for  10  days. 

The  flattering  testimonials  for  many  of  the  stock  foods  may  be  ex- 
plained without  granting  any  special  virtue  to  the  food.  These  foods 
are  usually  accompanied  by  directions  which  advocate  liberal  feeding 
and  good  care  of  animals  getting  the  food  in  order  to  "secure  the 
benefits  of  the  tonic."  Following  this  advice,  the  farmer  feeds  and 
cares  for  his  stock  better  than  ever  before,  and  obtains  better  results, 
due  not  to  the  stock  food,  but  to  the  directions  which  accompanied  it. 
The  wise  feeder  will  not  purchase  advice  along  with  costly  condi- 
mental  foods  but  will  secure  it  in  standard  agricultural  books  and 
palmers,  or  from  the  experiment  stations  and  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  the  average  composition  of  cow's  milk  and  tell  of  the  uses  of  skim 
milk,  buttermilk,  and  whey  in  feeding. 

2.  Why  should  dairy  by-products  be  pasteurized  before  feeding? 

3.  How  is  tankage  produced  and  what  are  its  uses  for  feeding? 

4.  Tell  something  about  the  other  animal  by-products  fed  to  stock. 

o.  How  is  wet  beet  pulp  obtained  and  what  are  the  uses  of  both  the  wet 
and  the  dried  beet  pulp? 

6.  Discuss   briefly  the  properties   and   value   of  both  beet  and   cane   molasses. 

7.  Tell  how  dried  distillers'  grains  are  produced  and  discuss  their  feeding 
value. 

8.  What  liave  you  learned  about  proprietarj'  feeds? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  feeding  stufTs  control  and  what  are  its  advantages  to 
the  stockman? 

10.  Would  you  buy  stock  foods?     State  j'our  reasons. 


CHAPTER  XII 

•     INDIAN  CORN  AND  THE  SORGHUMS  FOR  FORAGE 

I.     Indian  Corn 

Indian  corn,  the  imperial  agricultural  plant  of  America,  produces 
under  favorable  conditions  from  10  to  25  tons  of  green  forage  per 
acre,  containing  from  4,000  to  10,000  lbs.  of  dry  matter.  When 
grown  in  a  dense  mass  but  little  seed  forms,  and  we  have  a  rank  grass 
which  cures  into  a  bright,  nutritious,  coarse  hay.  If  the  plants  grow 
some  distance  apart,  a  large  yield  of  grain  results,  with  excellent 
forage  as  a  secondary  product.  Were  a  seedsman  to  advertise  In- 
dian corn  by  a  new  name,  recounting  its  actual  merits  while  in- 
geniously concealing  its  identity,  either  his  claims  would  be  discred- 
ited or  he  would  have  an  unlimited  demand  for  the  seed  of  this  sup- 
posed novelty. 

To  fix  in  mind  the  manner  in  which  corn  grows  and  elaborates  food 
for  animals,  before  proceeding  with  the  further  study  of  this  crop  the 
student  should  review  the  study  of  an  acre  of  corn  given  in  Chapter 
I.  The  importance  of  corn  as  a  cereal  has  already  been  discussed  in 
Chapter  IX. 

Corn  as  a  forage  plant. — The  entire  fresh  green  corn  plant  may  be 
fed  as  a  soiling  crop,  it  may  be  ensiled  or  cured  as  fodder  corn,  or  the 
grain  may  be  removed  and  the  remaining  stover  used  for  feed.  As 
shown  later,  ensiling  is  by  far  the  most  satisfactory  means  of  pre- 
serving the  entire  crop  as  forage. 

The  term  corn  fodder  or  fodder  corn  is  applied  to  corn  plants, 
either  fresh  or  cured,  Avhich  have  been  grown  primarily  for  forage, 
with  all  of  the  ears,  if  any,  originally  produced.  Shock  corn  and 
'bundle  corn  are  terms  used  for  fodder  corn  which  carries  much  grain, 
but  which  is  fed  without  husking.  Corn  stover  is  the  term  applied 
to  cured  shock  corn  from  which  the  ears  have  been  removed.  The 
terms  fodder  and  stover  are  also  applied  to  such  crops  as  the  sorghums. 
For  example,  kafir  forage  is  called  either  kafir  fodder  or  kafir  stover, 
depending  on  whether  or  not  the  heads  have  been  removed. 

Like  the  corn  grain,  corn  forage  is  low  in  crude  protein  compared 
with  carbohydrates  and  fat.  As  shown  in  Appendix  Table  III,  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  corn  silage  is  1 :15.1,  and  that  of  fodder  corn  1 :15.7 
to  1 :17.1,  while  corn  stover  has  the  very  wide  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :21.0 
or  over.     Hence,  these  roughages  should  be  supplemented  by  feeds 

157 


158  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

rich  in  crude  protein.     Corn  forage  is  fair  in  phosphorus  and  high  in 
lime,  compared  with  corn  and  the  other  cereal  grains. 

Thickness  of  planting. — How  thiciv  to  plant  corn  for  forage  to  se- 
cure the  highest  feeding  value,  has  been  studied  at  several  experiment 
stations.  The  following  table  shows  the  results  secured  at  the  Illinois 
Station^  where  corn  was  planted  on  good  prairie  soil  from  3  to  24 
inches  apart  in  the  row,  all  rows  being  3  feet  8  inches  apart: 

Results  of  planting  corn  kernels  various  distances  apart  in  rows 

Good  Poor  Qtovpr                   '^°*^'  Stover 

Distance  between                ears  ears                  Tier  digestible  for  each 

kernels  in  row                    per  per                   '  ^  nutrients  lb.  of 

acre  acre  per  acre  corn 

Bu.  Bu.  Tons                    Lbs.  Lbs. 

3  inches  13  46       4.8       6,218  3.6 

6  inches  37  39       3.7       5,980  1.9 

9  inclies  55  22       3.1       5,539  1.5 

12  inches  73  16       3.0       5,593  1.3 

15  inches  C3  11       2.9       5,180  1.4 

24  inches  49  6       2.5       4,207  1.5 

AVith  the  kernels  but  3  inches  apart  in  the  row  there  were  46  bushels 
of  "nubbins,"  or  poor  ears,  and  only  13  bushels  of  sound  ears  per 
acre.  However,  this  thick  planting  gave  the  largest  returns  in  di- 
gestible nutrients — over  6,000  lbs.  per  acre,  and  there  was  the  largest 
amount  of  stover  for  each  pound  of  corn.  The  largest  yield  of  sound 
ear  corn  was  secured  by  planting  the  kernels  12  inches  apart  in  the 
row,  the  returns  being  73  bushels  of  sound  and  16  bushels  of  poor  ears 
per  acre,  with  only  600  lbs.  less  digestible  matter  than  from  planting 
the  kernels  4  times  as  thickly.  These  and  other  trials  show  that 
when  corn  is  to  be  grown  for  forage,  the  seed  should  be  planted  so 
thickly  that  but  few  good  ears  form.  If  the  chief  object  is  grain, 
with  stover  secondary,  the  kernels  should  be  planted  at  such  a  dis- 
tance apart  that  all  plants  may  produce  full-sized  ears.  No  general 
rule  can  be  given  as  to  the  definite  amount  of  seed  to  be  planted  per 
acre,  for  this  varies  greatly  and  is  determined  by  local  conditions. 
One  should  know  accurately  the  capacity  of  his  land  for  corn,  and 
seed  accordingly. 

Nutrients  in  grain  and  stover. — Even  when  grown  for  the  grain,  a 
considerable  part  of  the  feeding  value  of  the  corn  crop  is  in  the  stover. 
In  trials  at  4  northern  stations  -  an  average  yield  of  4,415  lbs.  of  ear 
corn  and  3,838  lbs.  of  stover  was  secured  per  acre.  The  stover  con- 
tained one-fourth  of  the  digestible  crude  protein  and  over  one-third 
of  the  total  digestible  nutrients  in  the  crop.  The  amount  of  total  di- 
gestible nutrients  it  contains  measures  the  value  of  the  stover  for 

iHunt  and  Morrow,   111.   Bui.    13. 

2  Summarized  by  Armsby,  Penn.   Rpt.   1887. 


CORN  AND  THE  SORGHUMS  FOR  FORAGE       159 

merely  carrying  animals  thru  the  Avinter.  For  fattening  animals, 
dairy  cows  producing  heavy  yields  of  milk,  and  horses  at  hard  work, 
a  more  accurate  measure  of  its  value  is  the  net  energy  it  supplies. 
Yet,  even  on  this  basis  the  stover  furnished  one-fourth  the  net  energy 
of  the  crop.  This  shows  clearly  the  loss  of  animal  food  which  occurs 
each  year  when  unnumbered  acres  of  corn  stover  are  allowed  to  decay 
in  the  fields. 

Corn  silage. — Indian  corn  is  pre-eminently  a  silage  plant.     The 
solid,  succulent  stems  and  broad  leaves  when  cut  into  short  lengths 


Fig.  45. — ^Large,  Well-made  Shocks  op  Corn  Lessen  the  "Wastage 

To  lessen  the  loss  from  weathering,  corn  fodder  and  stover  should  he  placed 
in  large,  well-made  shocks.  Ea'ch  then  a  greater  loss  usually  occurs  than  when 
the  corn  is  ensiled. 

pack  closely  and  form  a  solid  mass  which  not  only  keeps  well  but  fur- 
nishes a  product  that  is  greatly  relished  by  stock  and  is  consumed 
with  little  waste.  Altho  with  enlarging  experience  the  use  of  other 
crops  for  silage  is  increasing  rapidly,  by  far  the  greater  portion  of 
all  the  forage  stored  in  silos  in  this  country  is  corn.  The  use  of 
corn  silage  has  practically  revolutionized  the  feeding  of  dairy  cattle 
over  a  large  part  of  the  United  States,  and  is  fast  becoming  almost 
equally  important  in  the  feeding  of  beef  cattle  and  sheep.     Thru  its 


160  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

use  the  cost  of  producing  milk  and  meat  may  be  materially  lowered 
all  over  the  corn  belt.  Not  only  is  corn  silage  excellent  for  cattle  and 
sheep,  but  it  may  be  used  in  a  limited  way  with  horses  that  are  idle  or 
at  light  work.  The  yield  of  silage  per  acre  varies  widely  with  the 
soil  and  season.  A  50-bushel  crop  of  corn  should  make  from  8  to  10 
tons  of  silage,  depending  on  the  size  and  leafiness  of  the  stalks.  The 
importance  of  corn  silage  on  American  farms  and  the  methods  of 
feeding  it  are  discussed  further  in  Chapter  XVI  and  in  the  respective 
chapters  of  Part  III. 

Corn  silage  vs.  corn  fodder. — Ensiling  is  the  best  method  of  pre- 
serving corn  forage,  for  less  nutrients  are  lost  than  when  the  crop  is 
cured  as  corn  fodder,  and  corn  silage  also  has  a  higher  feeding  value 
than  the  same  amount  of  dry  matter  in  cured  corn  fodder.  Even 
when  cured  in  well-made  shocks,  corn  fodder  or  stover  standing  in 
the  field  for  a  few  months  loses  at  least  15  per  ct.  and  usually  nearer 
20  per  ct.  of  the  dry  matter  it  contains,  due  to  weathering  and  to 
fermentations  which  gradually  waste  the  forage.  The  losses  fall 
chiefly  on  the  most  valuable  parts  of  the  plant — the  protein,  sugar, 
and  starch — which  are  less  resistant  and  more  soluble  than  the  fiber. 

Losses  also  occur  when  corn  is  ensiled,  but,  omitting  the  waste  at 
the  top  and  bottom  of  the  silo,  the  losses  in  dry  matter  need  not  ex- 
ceed 10  per  ct.  if  the  silage  is  well  made.  As  with  corn  fodder,  the 
losses  fall  on  the  best  portions  of  the  silage.  Considerable  of  the  pro- 
tein is  changed  to  amids,  and  some  of  the  starch  and  sugar  is  de- 
stroyed, while  the  fiber  is  not  diminished.  However,  not  as  large  a 
part  of  the  nutrients  is  lost  by  ensiling  as  when  the  crop  is  pre- 
served as  dry  corn  fodder.  Including  all  the  waste  in  the  silo,  in  10 
trials  at  4  experiment  stations  15.7  per  ct.  of  the  dry  matter  was  lost 
when  com  was  ensiled,  and  20.0  iper  ct.  when  the  crop  was  cured  in 
shocks.  Over  45  per  ct.  more  crude  protein  was  lost  in  the  dry  fodder 
than  in  the  silage. 

The  feeding  trials  with  dairy  cows  and  steers  reported  in  Part  III 
show  that  silage  gives  better  results  than  a  corresponding  amount  of 
dry  fodder.  This  is  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that  cattle  usually 
reject  the  dry  butts  of  the  corn  stalks,  even  when  finely  cut,  w^hile  in 
silage  they  are  eaten.  Moreover,  owing  to  the  great  palatability  of 
this  succulent  feed,  silage-fed  animals  consume  a  larger  ration,  and 
more  nutrients  are  hence  available  for  milk  or  flesh  production  after 
supplying  the  wants  of  the  body.  Just  as  important  as  these  advan- 
tages is  the  fact  that,  like  other  succulent  feeds,  silage  has  a  bene- 
ficial laxative  effect,  and  is  a  valuable  aid  in  keeping  farm  animals 
thrifty. 

The  corn  for  silage. — In  earlier  years  corn  was  usually  ensiled 


COKN  AND  THE  SORGHUMS  FOR  FORAGE       161 

before  the  kernels  were  in  the  glazing  stage.  Experience  has  shown, 
however,  that  much  sweeter  silage  is  produced  when  corn  is  not  ensiled 
until  the  kernels  have  hardened  and  glazed.  (With  the  dent  varieties 
when  they  are  well  dented.)  The  rapid  storage  of  high-quality 
nutrients,  pointed  out  in  Chapter  I,  which  takes  place  during  the 
glazing  stage  and  later,  is  an  even  more  important  reason  for  waiting 
until  the  corn  is  nearly  mature.  The  crop  should,  however,  be  cut  for 
silage  while  most  of  the  leaves  are  yet  green. 

In  the  North  the  question  arises  as  to  whether  to  grow  for  silage  the 
smaller  northern  varieties  of  corn,  or  the  tall,  late  southern  kinds 
which  will  not  mature  before  frost.  Trials  have  shown  that  these 
rank  growing  varieties  will  yield  a  larger  amount  of  digestible  nu- 
trients per  acre  than  the  smaller  ones,  but  such  immature  corn  makes 
silage  which  is  sour  and  contains  but  little  grain.  The  stockman  with 
plenty  of  hay,  straw,  and  stover  to  feed  will  wish  to  fill  his  silo  with  a 
richer  feed  than  the  southern  corn  yields,  and  will  therefore  use  north- 
ern dent  or  flint  varieties  which  mature.  To  secure  a  large  tonnage, 
he  will  plant  the  crop  somewhat  more  thickly  than  for  grain  produc- 
tion, but  yet  so  as  to  secure  a  relatively  large  proportion  of  grain  to 
roughage.  He  will  thus  secure  a  rich  silage  which  will  materially 
reduce  the  amount  of  concentrates  required  for  his  stock. 

In  late  seasons  it  is  best  to  let  corn  stand  till  after  frost  rather  than 
ensile  it  too  green,  for  satisfactor.y  silage  can  be  made  from  frosted 
corn,  and  the  crop  may  mature  to  a  considerable  extent  before  a 
severe  frost  comes.  If  the  crop  is  killed  by  frost,  it  should  be  ensiled 
quickly,  for  the  storm  which  usually  soon  follows  will  wash  out  much 
luitriment  from  the  frosted  forage,  and  the  wind  will  soon  whip  off 
the  dried,  brittle  leaves.  If  the  plants  dry  out  before  all  the  crop  can 
be  ensiled,  water  should  be  added  as  the  silo  is  filled  to  insure  the 
necessary  fermentations  that  preserve  the  silage. 

Corn  fodder  or  stover  silage. — In  recent  years  it  has  been  found 
that  silage  can  be  made  from  cured  corn  or  sorghum  forage.  When 
cut  into  the  silo,  thoroly  moistened,  and  well-packed,  it  will  undergo 
fermentation  similar  to  that  which  occurs  with  green  material,  and 
will  thus  be  preserved  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  Tho  usually  less 
palatable  than  silage  from  green  fodder,  this  product  has  an  aromatic 
silage  odor  and  is  readily  consumed  by  stock  with  less  waste  than  is 
dry  fodder  or  stover.  This  method  is  now  followed  by  many  farmers, 
especially  in  the  plains  region,  some  filling  their  silos  three  times 
a  year — in  the  fall  with  green  corn  or  sorghum,  and  later  with  the 
cured  forage.  It  is  necessary  to  add  enough  water  so  that  the  material 
will  pack  well  and  then  to  tramp  it  down  with  especial  thoroness ; 
otherwise  the  mass  will  spoil.     Tho  the  water  may  be  added  to  the 


162  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

cut  material  in  the  silo,  it  can  be  distributed  more  evenly  if  a  stream 
is  run  into  the  blower,  and  then  more  water  sprinkled  over  the  cut 
fodder  in  the  silo  as  it  is  filled.  Due  to  the  widely  varying  water  con- 
tent of  field-cured  corn  forage,  it  is  impossible  to  state  definitely  the 
amount  of  water  to  be  added.  Some  recommend  adding  about  an 
equal  weight  of  water  to  the  forage,  others  add  just  enough  so  that 
water  may  be  squeezed  out  of  the  cut  material. 

Dry  corn  fodder. — Tho  not  as  palatable  and  valuable  as  corn  silage, 
corn  grown  thickly  and  cured  as  dry  fodder  while  the  leaves  are  yet 
green  makes  a  coarse  hay  of  high  feeding  value.  Such  fodder,  with 
bright,  nutritious  leaves  and  small  palatable  ears  that  are  easily  mas- 
ticated, has  a  value  not  as  yet  appreciated  by  most  stockmen.  Over- 
looking the  splendid  qualities  of  corn  as  a  forage  plant,  too  many 
farmers  have  become  accustomed  to  growing  this  giant  grass  for  the 
grain  it  yields,  using  the  stover  as  a  straw  to  be  fed  or  wasted  as  acci- 
dent determines. 

As  it  is  low  in  protein,  corn  fodder  gives  the  best  results  when 
legume  hay  forms  part  of  the  roughage,  such  combination  giving 
excellent  results  with  dairy  cows,  beef  cattle,  and  sheep.  Com  fodder 
is  also  an  economical  substitute  for  timothy  hay  with  idle  horses, 
brood  mares,  and  growing  colts.  Com  fodder  and  stover  should  be 
placed  in  large,  well-made  shocks,  to  reduce  the  losses  by  weathering. 
Since  the  stalks  stand  almost  vertical  in  the  shocks,  as  the  leaves  wilt 
there  is  ample  room  for  the  upward  passage  of  air  currents,  which 
rapidly  dry  the  interior  and  check  molds  and  fermentations.  When 
shock  corn  is  pronounced  "dry"  by  the  farmer,  it  usually  carries 
more  water  and  consequently  less  dry  matter  than  hay,  a  fact  which 
should  not  be  overlooked  when  feeding  this  forage.  Care  must  be 
taken  that  corn  fodder  or  stover  is  well-cured  before  it  is  stacked,  and 
especially  before  it  is  stored  in  the  mow,  for  musty,  moldy  forage  is 
not  only  unpalatable  but  even  dangerous.  In  districts  of  the  South 
where  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  cure  corn  forage,  the  silo  is  par- 
ticularly useful. 

Shock  corn, — Rather  than  husking  corn  and  feeding  the  grain  and 
stover  separately,  it  is  often  more  profitable  to  feed  shock  corn,  the 
animals  doing  their  own  husking.  This  is  especially  true  for  animals 
which  need  only  a  small  grain  allowance,  such  as  cattle  being  carried 
thru  the  winter  and  idle  horses.  Shock  com  may  also  be  successfully 
fed  to  fattening  cattle  and  sheep,  particularly  at  the  beginning  of 
the  fattening  period,  and  to  a  less  extent  to  dairy  cows.  It  is  true 
that  when  fed  unhusked  some  com  passes  thru  the  animal  unbroken, 
but  feeding  trials  show  that,  despite  such  waste,  there  is  often  little  or 
no  profit  in  husking  the  ear  and  reducing  it  to  meal.     A  little  study 


CORN  AND  THE  SORGHUMS  FOR  FORAGE       163 

will  determine  the  amount  of  grain  the  shocks  carry,  so  that  the  feeder 
can  properly  adjust  the  proportion  of  grain  to  roughage  by  supplying 
either  ear  corn  or  corn  stover,  as  the  animals  may  require. 

Corn  stover. — The  forage  which  remains  after  removing  the  ears 
from  shock  corn  has  a  higher  feeding  value  than  is  usually  believed. 
Stover  produced  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  corn  belt  is  superior  in 
nutriment  and  palatability  to  that  grown  in  the  South.  As  soon  as 
fairly  well  cured,  stover  should  be  placed  under  cover  or  stacked, 
rather  than  left  to  waste  away  in  the  field.  When  fed  with  alfalfa  or 
clover  hay,  good  corn  stover  may  often  profitably  form  half  the 
roughage  allowance  for  fattening  cattle  or  sheep.  For  stock  cattle 
and  breeding  cows  it  may  be  utilized  to  even  a  larger  extent,  and  it  is 
also  satisfactory  for  breeding  ewes.  While  corn  stover  alone  will  not 
quite  maintain  the  weight  of  growing  steers  during  the  winter,  stover 
and  legume  hay  with  no  grain  will  make  fair  gains.  This  cheap  feed 
is  also  a  satisfactory  roughage  for  horses  doing  but  little  work.  J\Iost 
of  the  roughage  of  dairy  cows  should  be  more  palatable  and  nutri- 
tious in  character,  but  corn  stover  may  often  be  economically  fed  even 
to  them. 

Shredding  or  cutting  stover  or  fodder. — When  shock  corn  is 
husked  by  machinery,  the  stover  is  usually  cut  or  shredded  at  the  same 
operation.  Corn  fodder  is  also  often  passed  thru  a  feed  cutter  before 
feeding.  This  finer  material  is  no  more  digestible  than  the  uncut 
forage.  However,  cutting  or  shredding  usually  reduces  the  waste, 
as  it  induces  the  cattle  to  eat  a  greater  part  of  the  stalks,  unless  they 
are  coarse  and  woody.  The  cut  or  shredded  forage  is  also  easier  to 
handle,  and  the  waste  is  in  better  shape  for  bedding. 

Corn  for  soilage. — Corn  ranks  high  as  a  soiling  crop  on  account  of 
its  palatability,  the  high  yield  of  nutrients,  and  the  fact  that  it  remains 
in  good  condition  for  feeding  for  a  much  longer  period  than  many 
other  crops  grown  for  soilage.  On  farms  lacking  summer  silage,  feed- 
ing corn  forage  in  the  green  stage  as  soilage  should  become  general, 
for  during  the  late  summer  and  early  fall  pastures  are  often  too 
scanty  to  enable  animals  to  do  their  best.  In  the  case  of  dairy  cows 
such  a  shortage  of  feed  will  cause  a  decrease  in  milk  flow,  which  often 
cannot  be  recovered  by  subsequent  liberal  feeding.  An  acre  of  ripen- 
ing corn  fed  in  early  fall  may  return  twice  as  much  profit  as  if  it  were 
held  over  until  winter.  For  early  feeding  sweet  corn  may  often  be 
advantageously  used. 

II.    The  Sorghums 

In  the  dry-farming  districts,  from  Nebraska  to  Texas  and  Arizona, 
the  sorghums,   both  the  saccharine  sorghos  and  the  non-saccharine 


164 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


grain  sorghums,  are  of  great  and  increasing  importance  as  forage 
crops,  because  they  are  far  more  drought  resistant  than  corn  and  the 
leaves  remain  green  late  in  autumn.  The  sorghums,  mainly  the 
sorghos,  are  valuable  in  the  southern  states  for  hay,  soilage,  and  silage, 
and  are  also  grown  in  the  northern  states,  chiefly  for  soilage. 

Three  tons  of  air-dry  fodder  is  a  good  and  6  tons  a  large  return  from 
the  sorghums,  while  maximum  yields  may  reach  10  tons  of  dry  fodder 


Fig.  46. — A  Field  of  Kafir  in  the  Texas  Panhandle 

Because  of  their  resistance  to  drought,  the  grain  sorghiims  and  tlie  sorghos  are 
of  great  importance  as  forage  crops  in  the  semi-arid  districts.  (From  The 
Southwest  Trail,  Eock  Island  Lines.) 


or  40  tons  of  green  material.^     Under  Kansas  conditions  the  sorghums 
produce  one-third  to  one-half  more  forage  per  acre  than  corn.* 

Sorg-hum  fodder  and  stover. — Thruout  regions  of  scanty  rainfall 
the  sorghums  are  most  commonly  grown  in  drilled  rows  of  sufficient 
width  to  allow  cultivation,  by  which  the  moisture  is  conserved  and 
larger  yields  obtained.  When  grown  in  drills,  not  too  thickly,  much 
seed  is  produced  and  the  stalks  are  somewhat  coarse.  Sorghum  forage 
is  more  palatable  when  cut  before  full  maturity,  but  the  seed  should 
be  allowed  to  reach  the  early  dough  .stage,  for  if  cut  earlier  the  plants 


3  Piper,  Forage  Plants,  p.  269. 


4  Reed,  Kan.  Cir.  28. 


CORN  AND  THE  SORGHUMS  FOR  FORAGE      165 

are  watery  and  contain  little  nutriment.  The  crop  is  cured  in  shocks, 
the  same  as  Indian  corn,  but  in  the  case  of  the  juicy-stemmed  sorghos, 
which  cure  with  difficulty,  the  shocks  should  be  small.  In  sections 
with  ample  rainfall  the  seed  is  often  broadcasted,  and  the  fine-stemmed 
plants  cut  and  cured  the  same  as  the  meadow  grasses.  In  the  South 
where  the  rainfall  is  ample  and  on  irrigated  lands  2  to  3  cuttings  of 
sorghum  may  be  secured  in  the  season,  if  the  crop  is  cut  before  it 
matures ;  in  the  dry-farming  districts  it  is  usually  cut  but  once. 

The  various  types  of  grain  sorghums  have  been  described  in  Chap- 
ter X.  The  kafirs  excel  in  yield  and  value  of  forage,  for  they  are 
leafy  and  the  stems  are  more  succulent  than  those  of  milo,  feterita,  or 
kaoliang.  Kafir  fodder  and  stover  compare  favorably  in  composition 
and  feeding  value  with  that  from  corn.  Feterita  ranks  next  to  kafir 
for  forage,  while  milo,  kaoliang,  and  shallu  are  less  leafy  and  have 
more  pithy  stems.  The  dwarf  types  of  the  grain  sorghums  are  often 
harvested  with  a  grain  header,  and  stock  grazed  on  the  standing 
stalks. 

The  sorghos,  with  their  juicy  stalks  rich  in  sugar,  are  grown  chiefly 
for  forage.  Early  varieties,  such  as  Amber  cane,  ripen  earlier  than 
kafir  or  milo,  and  may  be  grown  wherever  corn  will  mature.  The 
palatable  leaves,  sweet  stalks,  and  freedom  from  dust  make  sorgho 
forage  a  desirable  roughage  for  stock,  especially  horses. 

The  sorghums  for  grazing,  soilage,  and  silage.— Especially  in  the 
southern  states,  the  sorghums,  mainly  the  sorghos,  are  widely  used  as 
summer  pasture  for  horses,  cattle,  and  swine,  since  they  are  available 
at  a  time  when  other  crops  are  exhausted  or  immature.  Owing  to  the 
danger  from  prussic  acid  poisoning,  extreme  care  must  be  taken  in 
pasturing  second  growth  or  stunted  sorghums.  By  feeding  the  green 
crop  as  soilage  it  is  utilized  more  completely  than  when  pastured. 
Tho  sorghum  may  be  cut  at  any  time  after  it  reaches  a  height  of 
2  to  3  feet,  a  greater  yield  of  nutrients  will  be  secured  when  it  is 
allowed  to  head.  The  early  varieties  of  sorghos  are  admirable  soiling 
crops  for  the  northern  states. 

The  sorghums  formerly  had  the  reputation  of  producing  much 
sourer  silage  than  corn.  However,  numerous  experiments  have  now 
shown  that  when  sufficiently  matured  both  the  sorghos  and  the  grain 
sorghums  make  excellent  silage.  To  determine  when  cane  or  kafir  is 
ready  to  ensile  twist  a  stalk  with  the  hands.  AVhen  it  is  so  mature 
that  only  a  little  juice  will  run  out  the  proper  stage  has  been  reached.^ 
As  with  corn,  it  is  preferable  to  let  the  crop  of  cane  or  kafir  stand  till 
after  frost,  rather  than  ensile  when  too  green.  The  bagasse  or  waste 
of  the  sorghum  syrup  factories  should  not  be  wasted,  but  may  be 

5  Reed,  Kan.  Cir.  28. 


166  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

satisfactorily  ensiled,  as  may  the  leaves  removed  before  running  the 
stalks  thru  the  mill, 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Define  corn  fodder,  shock  corn,  and  corn  stover. 

2.  What  is  the  effect  of  thickness  of  planting  corn  on  the  yield  of  ears,  stover, 
and  total  nutrients? 

3.  What  part  of  the  digestible  crude   protein,   total   digestible  nutrients,   and 
net  energy  of  a  corn  crop  grown  for  grain  is  in  the  stover? 

4.  Discuss  corn  as  a  silage  crop  and  compare  corn  silage  with  corn  fodder. 

5.  How  should  the  corn   crop  be  handled  for  silage  so  as  to  secure  the  best 
returns  ? 

6.  How  is  silage  made  from  dry  corn  fodder? 

7.  Discuss  the  value  of  dry  corn  fodder  and  state  how  it  should  be  preserved. 

8.  Under  what  conditions  should  corn  be  fed  for  soilage? 

9.  Discuss  the  value  of  forage  from  kafir,  feterita,  milo,  and  sorgho. 
10.  What  is  the  value  of  the  sorghums  for  grazing,  soilage  and  silage? 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  SMALLER  GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 

I.     The  Smaller  Grasses 

Unlike  the  great  grain-bearing  grasses — corn,  wheat,  rye,  barley, 
oats,  rice,  and  the  sorghums,  which  are  all  annuals — the  smaller 
grasses  are  nearly  all  perennials.  Hence  they  thrive  without  cultiva- 
tion, producing  roughage  of  good  quality  with  little  expense  for  labor. 
For  building  up  the  soil  by  adding  humus  and  binding  it  together  the 
smaller  grasses  are  also  of  great  importance.  In  summertime  in 
regions  where  the  smaller  grasses  flourish  the  animals  of  the  farm 
largely  feed  themselves,  and  meat,  milk,  and  wool  are  produced  at  the 
minimum  expense. 

The  smaller  grasses  are  divided  into  two  classes — the  sod-formers 
and  the  non-sod-formers.  The  sod-formers,  which  spread  by  creeping 
rootstalks,  either  above  or  below  ground,  making  a  smooth  turf,  include 
our  most  valuable  pasture  and  lawn  grasses,  such  as  Kentucky  blue- 
grass  and  Bermuda  grass.  The  non-sod-formers,  such  as  orchard 
grass,  grow  in  tufts  or  bunches  and  increase  only  by  seed  or  stooling, 
except  in  the  case  of  a  few,  such  as  timothy,  which  also  increase  to 
some  extent  by  forming  new  bulbs  at  the  base  of  the  stems. 

Nutrients  in  grasses  at  different  stages. — Few  stockmen  realize  the 
great  difference  in  composition  between  young,  immature  grass  and 
the  same  grass  as  it  is  usually  cut  for  hay.  The  Kentucky  Station 
found  that  bluegrass,  rye,  wheat,  and  oats  cut  when  only  5  to  8  inches 
high  contained  as  high  a  percentage  of  protein  as  green  alfalfa  or 
clover.  This  shows  that  immature  grasses,  such  as  are  gathered  by 
grazing  animals,  are  protein-rich  feeds  and  explains  the  favorable 
results  secured  by  feeding  only  corn,  a  highly  carbonaceous  feed,  to 
fattening  animals  at  pasture.  On  the  other  hand,  when  cut  for  hay, 
the  smaller  grasses  are  relatively  low  in  protein  compared  with  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat,  and  hence  hay  from  the  grasses  should  always  be 
fed  with  feeds  rich  in  protein.  Tho  immature  grass  is  richer  in  pro- 
tein, a  larger  yield  of  dry  matter  and  a  larger  total  amount  of  protein 
is  secured  if  the  grass  is  not  cut  until  nearly  mature.  Thus,  when 
grass  is  cut  for  hay  at  the  usual  stage,  more  feed  is  usually  secured 
p(3r  acre  than  if  the  same  field  were  grazed  by  stock. 

167 


168  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Bluegrass. — Kentucky  bluegrass,  or  June  grass,  easily  ranks  first 
for  lawn  and  pasture  in  the  northeastern  United  States.  By  its 
persistence  it  often  even  drives  out  other  grasses  and  clovers  from  the 
meadows  and  pastures.  The  fact  that  bluegrass  is  one  of  the  richest 
of  grasses  in  digestible  protein  helps  explain  the  fondness  for  it  shown 
by  stock.  Differing  from  most  grasses  of  the  humid  regions,  mature 
dried  bluegrass  is  quite  readily  grazed  by  animals,  thus  resembling 
some  of  the  grasses  of  the  western  ranges. 

With  the  coming  of  spring,  bluegrass  pushes  forward  so  vigorously 


l^'^IH 

■b 

^^ 

^igfl 

^^ 

|| 

m 

^ 

s 

*'. 

Fig.  47.— Beef  Cattle  Fattening  on  Bluegrass  Pasture 

In  the  northeastern  United  States,  Kentucky  bluegrass  is  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant pasture  grass. 

that  early  in  IMay  the  fields  bear  a  thick,  nutritious  carpet  of  green. 
"With  seed  bearing,  the  plant's  energies  become  exhausted,  and  blue- 
grass  enters  a  period  of  rest  which  lasts  several  weeks,  and  if  a  mid- 
summer drought  occurs  the  plants  turn  brown  and  appear  to  be  dying. 
However,  they  quickly  revive  with  the  coming  of  the  fall  rains,  and 
each  plant  is  once  more  busy  gathering  nourishment  for  the  coming 
season's  seed  bearing.  The  observant  stockman  soon  learns  the  folly 
of  relying  on  bluegrass  pasture  for  a  steady  and  uniform  feed  supply 
for  his  cattle  thruout  the  season.  Accordingly,  he  understocks  the 
pasture  in  spring  so  that  the  excess  of  herbage  during  May  and  June 


THE  SMALLER  GRASSES— STRAW  169 

may  remain  to  be  drawn  upon  during  the  mid-summer  dormant  period, 
or  he  fully  stocks  it  and  makes  up  the  later  shortage  by  supplying 
silage  or  soilage.  Because  of  its  low,  carpet-like  growth,  bluegrass  is 
primarily  a  pasture,  rather  than  a  hay  grass. 

Timothy. — The  acreage  of  timothy  in  the  United  States  nearly 
equals  that  of  all  other  cultivated  hay  plants  combined,  including 
clover  and  alfalfa.  This  cool-weather  grass  is  of  especial  importance 
in  the  northeastern  states,  where  it  furnishes  probably  three-fourths 
of  all  hay  marketed  in  the  cities.  The  popularity  of  timothy  is  due 
to  the  following  points:  The  seed  is  cheap  and  generally  of  good 
quality.  A  field  of  timothy  is  quickly  established  and  usually  holds 
well.  The  grass  seldom  lodges,  may  be  harvested  over  a  longer  period 
than  most  grasses,  and  is  easily  cured  into  bright,  clean  hay  which  is 
quite  free  from  dust  and  can  be  handled  with  little  waste. 

For  horses  timothy  hay  is  the  standard  roughage,  being  preferred 
especially  by  city  buyers.  However,  mixed  clover  and  timothy  hay, 
or  even  legume  hay  alone,  if  of  good  quality,  may  be  successfully  used 
in  place  of  timothy.  For  dairy  and  beef  cattle  and  for  sheep  timothy 
is  greatly  inferior  to  hay  from  the  legumes,  for  timothy  is  low  in  pro- 
tein and  is  also  not  so  well-liked  by  these  animals  as  is  clover  or  alfalfa. 
^Moreover,  the  yield  of  timothy  is  not  large,  for  it  produces  but  little 
aftermath.  Therefore,  on  most  farms  where  timothy  is  now  exten- 
sively grown,  greater  use  should  be  made  of  the  legumes,  which  not 
only  yield  more  hay,  but  at  the  same  time  increase  the  fertility  of  the 
land.  Red  or  alsike  clover  should  alwaj's  be  sown  with  timothy,  except 
when  the  hay  is  to  be  grown  for  sale  and  the  demand  is  for  pure 
timothy,  for  the  combination  furnishes  more  and  superior  hay,  even 
for  horses.  Grown  together,  the  hay  of  the  first  season  will  consist 
largely  of  clover.  With  the  close  of  the  second  season  most  of  the 
clover  disappears  and  the  decaying  clover  roots  nourish  the  timothy 
which  remains,  so  that  a  much  larger  yield  of  that  grass  is  obtained. 
Fodder  corn  and  hay  from  the  cereals — oats,  wheat,  or  barley — are 
economical  substitutes  for  timothy  hay  in  many  cases. 

When  to  cut  timothy. — In  trials  during  3  seasons  at  the  jMissouri 
Station  ^  cutting  timothy  when  the  seed  had  just  formed  gave  the 
largest  yield  of  dry  matter,  closely  followed  by  cutting  when  the  seed 
was  in  the  dough.  However,  when  the  hay  was  cut  later  than  full 
bloom  it  was  less  digestible,  and  therefore  the  yield  of  digestible  nu- 
trients was  greatest  when  the  crop  was  cut  at  full  bloom.  After  this 
the  yield  of  both  digestible  protein  and  carbohydrates  fell  off  mark- 
edly. This  decrease  in  total  digestible  nutrients  as  the  hay  matures, 
which  is  opposite  to  what  occurs  in  the  corn  crop,  is  due  to  the  partial 

1  Waters  and  Schweitzer,  Proc.  Soc.  Prom.  Agr.  Sci.,  1010,  pp.  71-98. 


170 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


loss  of  the  lower  leaves  as  the  plants  ripen,  to  leaching  by  rain,  and 
to  the  storage  of  nutrients  in  the  bulbs  at  the  base  of  the  stems.  In 
maturing  corn  the  nutrients  are  stored  in  the  kernels,  which  are  easily 
masticated  and  highly  digestible.  In  the  smaller  grasses,  tho  a  similar 
storage  occurs  in  the  seeds,  they  are  so  small  and  have  such  hard  seed 
coats  that  they  escape  mastication  and  their  nutrients  are  largely  lost. 
Based  on  the  yield  of  digestible  nutrients  alone,  full  bloom  appears 
the  best  time  to  cut  timothy  for  hay,  but  other  factors  must  be  con- 
sidered.    Such  immature  grass  is  difficult  to  cure,  the  weather  early  in 


Fig.  48. — Cutting  a  Fine  Field  of  Timothy 

On  most  farms  where  timothy  is  now  extensively  gro\^■n,  gr£ater  use  should 
be  made  of  tlie  legumes,  which  not  only  yield  more  hay,  but  also  increase  the 
fertility  of  the  land. 

the  season  is  usually  more  unsettled,  and  the  ground  cooler.  Also, 
haying  must  often  be  delayed  in  the  corn  belt  until  the  corn  has  been 
cultivated.  In  general,  timothy  should  be  cut  early  for  dairy  cows, 
young  stock,  and  sheep,  since  these  animals  do  not  relish  hay  that  is 
woody  and  lacks  aroma,  as  does  most  late-cut  hay.  For  horses  and 
fattening  cattle  late  cutting  is  favored,  since  these  animals  get  much 
of  their  nourishment  from  concentrates,  and  the  hay  they  eat  serves 
more  as  ''filling."  In  any  event,  cutting  should  not  be  delayed  until 
the  grass  becomes  tough  and  woody  and  the  seeds  shatter. 

Red  top. — This  grass  is  probably  suited  to  a  wider  range  of  climatic 
and  soil  conditions  than  any  other  cultivated  grass.     A  couple  of  years 


THE  SMALLER  GRASSES— STRAW  171 

after  seeding  it  forms  a  close,  well-knit,  smooth  sod,  almost  as  dense  as 
bluegrass  turf.  There  is  no  better  grass  for  marshy  and  damp  lands, 
and  at  the  same  time  it  will  withstand  considerable  drought.  It 
endures  on  poor  uplands  and  on  soils  too  acid  for  most  other  grasses. 
Tho  not  so  well  liked  as  bluegrass,  red  top  gives  good  pasture  and 
yields  a  fine-stemmed  hay,  rated  somewhat  below  timothy  in  value. 

Orchard  grass. — Tho  it  does  well  in  full  sunlight,  this  grass  thrives 
better  than  most  others  in  partial  shade.  It  endures  hot  weather 
better  than  timothy  and  is  well  suited  to  the  southern  border  of  the 
timothy  belt.  As  it  starts  early  in  the  spring,  endures  drought  well, 
and  continues  growth  late  in  the  fall,  it  furnishes  valuable  pasturage, 
tho  stock  prefer  bluegrass.  While  late-cut  orchard  grass  makes  harsh, 
wood}'  hay,  that  cut  in  early  bloom  is  equal  to  the  best  of  the  hay 
grasses.  Orchard  grass  grows  in  tufts,  forming  an  uneven  sod,  and 
hence  should  be  sown  with  clovers  or  other  grasses,  both  for  hay  and 
pasture.  Ripening  two  weeks  before  timothy,  it  fits  in  well  with  red 
clover. 

Brome  grass. — In  that  part  of  the  great  plains  region  stretching 
from  South  Dakota  to  Saskatchewan,  brome  is  the  most  important 
cultivated  grass.  It  furnishes  good  crops  of  hay,  fully  equal  to 
timothy  in  feeding  value,  for  three  or  four  years  after  seeding,  by 
v/hich  time  it  usually  becomes  sod  bound  and  should  be  renewed  by 
harrowing  or  shallow  plowing.  Brome  is  one  of  the  most  palatable  of 
pasture  grasses  and  endures  heavy  grazing.  Tho  the  most  drought- 
resistant  of  the  cultivated  grasses,  brome  is  usually  less  productive 
than  the  native  prairie  grasses  in  the  drier  parts  of  the  dry-farming 
belt. 

The  millets. — The  millets  are  rapid  growing  hot-weather  annuals  of 
many  races  and  varieties.  Of  these,  the  foxtail  millets  are  the  type 
most  grown  for  forage  in  the  United  States.  In  this  group  are  com- 
mon millet,  the  earliest  and  most  drought-resistant ;  the  less  drought- 
resistant,  shorter  stemmed  Hungarian  millet,  the  seeds  of  which  are 
mostly  purplish ;  and  German  millet,  late  maturing  and  with  nodding 
heads,  which  yields  more  hay,  but  not  of  quite  such  good  quality. 
The  foxtail  millets  are  especially  valuable  as  hay  crops  on  dry-farms 
in  the  northern  plains  region.  In  the  more  humid  regions  they  are 
grown  chiefly  as  catch  crops.  Millet  should  be  seeded  thickly  for  hay 
and  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  the  blossoms  appear.  Such  hay  is  useful 
for  cattle  and  sheep  feeding,  tho  usually  less  palatable  and  inferior  in 
feeding  value  to  timothy  hay  or  even  bright,  fine  corn  or  sorghum 
fodder.  Since  millet  hay  is  sometimes  injurious  to  horses,  it  should  be 
fed  sparingly. 

Japanese  harnyard  millet,  a  close  relative  of  the  common  barnyard 
grass,  has  often  been  advertised  as  ' '  billion  dollar  grass. ' '     Tho  yield- 


172  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

ing  large  crops  of  coarse  forage  under  favorable  conditions,  it  is 
usually  inferior  to  the  foxtail  millets  for  hay,  and  to  corn  for  soilage. 
The  'broom-corn  millets,  previously  described,  are  grown  chiefly  for 
seed  production,  as  the  yield  of  forage  is  low  and  the  stems  woody. 
Vearl  millet,  also  called  pencillaria  or  cat-tail  millet,  is  adapted  to  the 
same  conditions  as  the  sorghums,  which  have  proven  more  valuable 
and  have  largely  displaced  it  in  both  the  semi-arid  regions  and  the 
South.  As  a  soiling  crop  this  tall  growing  grass  has  value  in  the 
southern  states,  yielding  three  or  more  cuttings  in  a  season.  It  should 
be  cut  when  3  to  4  feet  high,  before  the  stems  become  hard. 

Teosinte,  a  giant  millet  resembling  sorghum,  requires  a  rich,  moist 
soil  and  is  too  tropical  to  have  value  north  of  the  southern  portion  of 
the  Gulf  states.  The  culture  of  this  grass  is  decreasing  in  the  United 
States,  because  on  moderately  fertile  soils  it  yields  less  than  sorghum, 
and  on  rich  land  less  than  Japanese  cane. 

Cereal  grains  for  forage. — All  the  small  grains  are  suitable  for  hay, 
soilage,  and  pasturage.  Over  four  million  acres  of  small  grains  were 
cut  for  hay  in  1909,  half  of  this  area  being  in  the  Pacific  coast  states. 
More  than  40  per  ct.  of  the  hay  grown  in  the  southeastern  coast  states 
is  from  the  small  grains.  Cereals  should  be  cut  for  hay  when  the 
grains  are  in  the  early  milk  stage,  and  the  bearded  grains  before  the 
awns  harden. 

In  the  North  fall-sown  rye  or  wheat  furnishes  excellent  late  fall  and 
early  spring  pasture  and  soilage,  while  spring-sown  oats  or  barley 
provide  green  forage  in  early  summer.  Barley,  being  more  rust  resist- 
ant, is  the  best  cereal  grass  for  late  summer  seeding.  In  the  South 
fall-sown  grains  may  be  pastured  moderately  thru  the  winter  and  will 
still  yield  considerable  hay  or  grain.  Green  rye  gives  a  bad  flavor  to 
milk  unless  the  cows  are  pastured  on  it  for  but  two  or  three  hours 
after  milkiiig.  A  field  sown  to  rye,  wheat,  oats,  or  barley  for  tem- 
porary pasture  may  be  changed  to  a  permanent  one  by  sowing  clover 
and  grass  seed  thereon  early  in  spring.  The  grass  and  clover  plants 
will  then  begin  growth  under  shelter  of  the  young  grain.  Stock  may 
graze  on  the  cereal  plants  regardless  of  the  young  grasses  and  clovers 
but  should  be  kept  ofl:  the  fields  after  rains.  As  the  cereal  plants 
gradually  die,  the  grasses  and  clovers  spread  until  they  form  a  dense, 
permanent  sod. 

If  ensiled  when  the  kernels  are  just  past  the  milk  stage  or  slightly 
earlier,  the  cereals  make  fair  to  good  silage.  The  crop  should  be  run 
thru  a  silage  cutter  and  unusual  care  taken  in  tramping  down  the 
mass  to  force  the  air  out  of  the  hollow  stems. 

Bermuda  grass. — This  low-growing,  creeping  grass  is  to  the  cotton 
belt  what  bluegrass  and  timothy  combined  are  to  the  northeastern 


THE  SMALLER  GRASSES— STRAW 


173 


states.  Bermuda  forms  a  dense  sod  and  serves  best  when  closely 
grazed,  as  otherwise  it  becomes  tough  and  wiry.  It  drives  out  most 
other  grasses,  but  lespedeza  or  white  clover  will  flourish  in  spots  and 
improve  the  pasture.  It  furnishes  pasturage  from  April  to  October 
and  in  winter,  when  it  is  dormant,  the  sod  may  be  seeded  with  bur 
clover,  hairy  vetch,  or  Italian  rye  grass.  Tho  primarily  a  pasture 
plant,  on  rich  soil  Bermuda  yields  from  three  to  four  tons  per  acre 
of  hay  equal  to  timothy  in  value,  tho  the  average  is  not  over  one  ton. 
Johnson  grass. — In  the  South  this  plant  is  the  worst  weed  of  the 


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49.— Sudan  < 


-A  New  Croi'  of  Mrcii  Promise 


This  close  relative  of  the  sorghums  is  giving  excellent  results  as  a  hay  crop 
in  the  semi-arid  districts  and  may  prove  superior  to  the  millets  as  a  catch  crop 
in  the  northern  states.      (From  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

cotton  planter  and  yet  the  best  meadow  grass  for  many  sections.  Its 
vigorous  creeping  rootstalks  make  it  difficult  to  eradicate  when  once 
established  and  it  is  therefore  not  usually  sown  on  clean  fields.  From 
two  to  three  tons  per  acre  is  the  average  yield  of  Johnson  grass  cut  for 
hay,  but  6  tons  per  acre  has  been  reported.  It  should  be  cut  before 
maturity.  Tho  too  coarse  for  pasture,  Johnson  grass  may  be  cut  once 
a  month  during  the  summer  for  soilage. 

Sudan  grass.— This  close  relative  of  the  sorghums  was  introduced 
into  this  country  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 


174  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

in  1909.  It  closely  resembles  Johnson  grass,  but  fortunately  has  no 
creeping  rootstalks,  and  thus  cannot  become  a  pest.  Tho  a  tall,  rank- 
growing  grass,  the  stems  are  comparatively  slender,  seldom  being 
larger  than  a  lead  pencil.  It  yields  hay  similar  to  timothy  in  com- 
position and  somewhat  superior  to  millet  in  feeding  value.  It  gives 
one  cutting  in  the  northern  states  and  tAvo  or  more  in  the  South. 
Being  drought  resistant  and  adapted  to  the  same  conditions  as  the 
sorghums,  it  is  an  important  forage  crop  for  the  western  portion  of 
the  plains  region.  As  it  is  a  heat  loving  plant,  Sudan  grass  does  not 
flourish  at  high  altitudes  or  in  the  extreme  North.  Neither  does  it 
thrive  along  the  humid  Gulf  coast.  Yields  of  1.25  to  5  tons  of  hay 
per  acre  have  been  secured  in  the  great  plains  district,  even  with 
unusually  severe  drought,  and  under  irrigation  in  the  Southwest 
yields  of  8  to  nearly  10  tons  have  been  obtained.  Sudan  grass  is  also 
a  valuable  soilage  crop. 

Japanese  cane ;  sugar  cane. — Because  of  its  heavy  yields,  Japanese 
cane,  a  slender  stemmed  variety  of  the  common  sugar  cane,  is  one  of 
the  cheapest  forage  crops  that  can  be  grown  in  the  Gulf  states,  and 
possibly  in  southern  California.  In  Florida  it  furnishes  good  pasture 
for  cattle  and  hogs  from  November  to  March,  but  is  killed  by  grazing 
after  growth  starts  in  the  spring.  The  crop  may  be  cured  as  dry 
fodder  and  makes  good  silage.  Yields  of  25  to  30  tons  of  green  forage 
per  acre  are  not  unusual. 

The  tops  and  leaves  of  common  sugar  cane,  removed  on  harvesting 
the  cane,  make  satisfactory  forage  for  live  stock,  and  may  be  ensiled. 
It  is  a  wasteful  practice  not  to  utilize  this  bj'-product  by  feeding  to 
stock. 

Wild  and  marsh  grasses. — Along  parts  of  the  Atlantic  coast  are 
extensive  salt  marshes,  the  best  of  which  are  cut  for  hay  at  low  tide, 
yielding  0.5  to  1  ton  per  acre.  Such  hay  is  from  10  to  18  per  ct.  less 
valuable  than  average  mixed  hay  from  the  cultivated  grasses  for  dairy 
cows.  In  all  humid  regions  of  the  country  are  fresh  water  marshes, 
some  of  which  are  covered  with  the  more  nutritious  true  grasses,  while 
in  others  the  rushes  and  sedges  predominate.  Such  marsh  hay  as  blue 
joint,  cut  before  maturity,  nearly  equals  timothy  in  value.  The 
prairies  of  the  Great  Plains  and  the  grazing  ranges  of  the  West  sup- 
port numerous  native  grasses  that  furnish  excellent  pasturage  and 
hay  equal  to  timothy. 

Mixed  grasses. — No  matter  how  valuable  a  single  variety  of  grass 
may  be,  it  should  never  be  grown  alone  in  permanent  meadows  and 
pastures,  but  always  in  combination  with  other  grasses  and  the  clovers. 
In  the  North  an  excellent  combination  is  timothy,  red  top,  and  orchard 


THE  SMALLER  GRASSES— STRAW  175 

grass,  with  alsike  and  medium  red  clover.  The  variety  and  proportion 
of  grasses  and  clovers  to  be  included  in  any  mixture  depend  on  climatic 
and  soil  conditions.  Before  sowing,  one  should  consult  the  experi- 
ment station  of  his  state,  as  well  as  observe  what  varieties  of  grasses 
and  clovers  thrive  best  in  his  particular  locality. 

The  abuse  of  pasturage. — Too  many  stockmen  rely  entirely  upon 
pastures  for  the  maintenance  of  their  cattle  during  half  the  year,  not 
realizing  that  if  drought  prevails  during  the  summer  months  the  ani- 
mals may  suffer  from  hunger.  In  addition,  there  is  the  heat  of  ' '  dog 
days"  and  the  ever-present  annoyance  of  blood-sucking  flies.  Stock- 
men who  turn  their  cattle  to  pasture  in  spring,  allowing  them  to  forage 
as  best  they  can  until  winter,  are  guilty  of  barbarism  as  truly  as  were 
the  early  Britons,  who  forced  their  stock  to  live  on  natural  herbage 
not  only  in  summer  but  in  winter  as  well.  If  the  animals  died  from 
starvation  it  was  "an  act  of  God."  The  stockman  of  today  amply  pro- 
vides for  winter's  rigor,  but  he  can  never  expect  his  flocks  and  herds 
to  yield  their  best  returns  unless  he  also  makes  ample  provision  against 
the  possibility  of  drought-ruined  pastures  in  summer. 

In  America  we  have  not  begun  to  use  our  pastures  as  efficiently  as 
is  done  in  Europe,  where  stock  is  still  economically  grazed  on  land 
worth  several  hundred  dollars  an  acre.  By  proper  fertilization, 
reseeding,  and  keeping  down  of  brush  and  weeds,  the  productivity  of 
pastures  may  be  greatly  increased.  In  humid  regions  unless  grasses 
are  pastured  so  closely  as  to  be  killed  out  thru  tramping,  heavy  graz- 
ing is  often  better  than  pasturing  too  lightly,  for  weeds  are  then  kept 
from  encroaching  on  the  grasses. 

Because  of  over-stocking  and  consequent  over-grazing  under  the 
system  of  free  grazing,  the  carrying  capacity  of  many  of  the  western 
ranges  has  been  seriously  reduced.  The  day  of  the  "  all-3'ear-round " 
open  range  is  almost  past,  and  in  its  place  has  come  a  system  under 
which,  by  the  use  of  supplemental  feed  for  periods  of  summer  drought 
and  winter  storm,  the  natural  forage  is  used  much  more  wisely  than 
before.  With  ranges  thus  handled,  the  enormous  losses  of  cattle  and 
sheep  from  starvation,  which  were  all  too  common  in  the  old  range 
days,  are  prevented.  Fencing  or  otherwise  restricting  the  range, 
developing  convenient  water  supplies,  protecting  the  range  during 
periods  of  seed  ripening  and  germination,  and  preventing  soil  erosion, 
will  greatly  increase  the  amount  of  feed  produced.  In  one  instance  a 
range  of  25  square  miles,  6  j^ears  after  fencing,  not  only  carried  twice 
as  many  cattle  as  before  but  also  kept  them  in  much  better  condition.^ 

2Thornber  and  Griffith,  Ariz.  Bui.  65. 


176  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

II.     Straw  and  Chaff 

As  plants  mature,  the  nutrients  which  have  been  built  up  in  the 
green  portions  are  in  large  part  transferred  and  stored  in  the  ripening 
seed,  thus  largely  exhausting  the  stems  and  leaves  of  easily  digested 
nutrients  and  leaving  in  them  the  resistant  woody  fiber,  or  cellulose. 
All  straws  are,  therefore,  worth  much  less  than  the  same  plants  cut  for 
hay  before  maturity.  The  feeding  value  of  each  class  of  straw  may 
differ  widely,  depending  on  the  stage  at  which  the  crop  was  cut,  the 
care  with  which  it  was  cured,  and  the  amount  of  the  more  nutritious 
grasses  and  weeds  present. 

Straw  and  chaff  of  the  cereals. — Being  low  in  protein,  nitrogen- 
free  extract,  and  fat,  and  high  in  fiber,  straw  furnishes  less  digestible 
nutrients  and  much  less  net  energy  than  good  hay.  Accordingly,  it 
should  not  form  any  large  part  of  the  roughage  for  animals  at  hard 
work,  fattening  rapidly,  or  giving  a  large  flow  of  milk.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  roughage  for  idle  horses  and  ani- 
mals being  carried  over  winter  without  gaining  materially  in  weight 
may  consist  of  straw.  When  much  straw  is  fed,  the  additional  protein 
needed  should  be  supplied  in  other  feeds.  Growing  steers,  wintered 
on  good  straw  as  the  only  roughage,  with  1  or  2  lbs.  of  cottonseed  meal 
per  head  daily,  will  more  than  maintain  their  weight.  A  small  amount 
of  straw  satisfies  the  desire  for  dry  roughage  of  steers  fattening  on 
com  silage,  corn,  and  cottonseed  meal  just  as  well  as  will  clover  hay. 

In  Canada  and  Europe  pulped  roots  and  meal  are  often  mixed  with 
cut  or  chaffed  oat  straw,  and  the  moist  mass  allowed  to  soften.  It  is 
then  readil}^  consumed  by  cattle  and  sheep.  In  many  districts  of 
Europe  horses  are  fed  cut  straw  mixed  with  their  concentrate  allow- 
ance, small  amounts  being  thus  utilized  even  for  horses  at  hard  work. 

Oat  straw  with  its  soft,  pliable  stems  is  the  most  nutritious,  followed 
by  barley  straw.  "Wheat  straw,  being  coarse  and  stiff,  is  not  so  readily 
eaten,  and  rye  straw,  harsh  and  woody,  had  better  be  used  for  bedding. 
The  chaff  of  wheat  and  oats  contains  more  crude  protein  than  does  the 
straw,  and  is  a  useful  roughage  when  not  loaded  with  dust,  rust,  or 
mold. 

Straw  from  legumes  and  other  plants. — Straw  from  the  legumes 
contains  more  crude  protein  and  less  fiber  than  that  from  the  cereals, 
and  is  more  digestible.  Field  pea  straw,  with  its  fine  stems  and  often 
carrying  some  seed,  has  a  higher  value  than  the  coarser  straw  from 
field  beans  or  soybeans,  tho  even  these  are  better  than  oat  straw  if 
well  cured.  Clover  straw  may  be  fed  to  cattle  or  sheep,  but  is  too 
dusty  for  horses. 

While  not  especially  desirable,  flax  straw  may  be  fed  in  the  absence 


THE  SMALLER  GRASSES— STRAW  177 

of  better  roughage.  The  statement  that  the  stringy  fiber  of  flax  forms 
indigestible  balls  in  the  stomachs  of  farm  animals  is  unwarranted, 
since  it  is  digested  the  same  as  other  fibrous  matter.  Green-colored 
straw  from  immature  flax  plants  should  be  fed  with  extreme  caution, 
ds  it  may  contain  enough  prussic  acid  to  be  poisonous.  Buckwheat 
straw  has  little  value,  and  may  cause  digestive  disturbances  if  fed  in 
large  amount.     Properly  cured  rice  straw  is  excellent  for  stock. 

III.     Hay-Mx\king 

Converting  green  forage  into  hay  was  probably  the  first  step  in 
changing  the  wandering  herdsman  into  the  farmer-stockman.  To-day 
over  seventy  million  tons  of  hay  are  produced  annually  in  the  United 
States,  and  thruout  the  temperate  zone  hay  is  the  common  roughage 
for  all  the  larger  animals  of  the  farm. 

Nutritive  value  of  dried  grass.— Trials  have  shown  that  grass  dried 
under  perfect  conditions  has  as  high  nutritive  value  as  when  fed  in 
the  fresh  state.  However,  in  actual  haymaking  more  or  less  of  the 
nutrients  are  always  lost,  due  to  loss  of  leaves  and  exposure  to  sun- 
light, dew,  and  rain.  Meadow  hay  exposed  to  prolonged  rain  may  lose 
as  much  as  18  per  et.  of  the  total  dry  matter,  and  legume  hay  still  more. 
In  a  trial  at  the  Colorado  Station  ^  alfalfa  hay  exposed  to  3  rains, 
aggregating  1.8  inches,  lost  31.7  per  ct.  of  the  total  dry  matter.  The 
actual  damage  was  even  greater  than  this,  for,  while  practically  all  of 
the  fiber  remained,  60  per  ct.  of  the  crude  protein,  41  per  ct.  of  the 
nitrogen-free  extract,  and  33  per  ct.  of  the  fat  was  lost. 

Hay-making-. — The  ends  sought  in  making  hay  are  to  reduce  the 
water  content  to  about  15  per  ct.,  so  that  the  hay  will  keep  when  placed 
in  the  stack  or  mow,  and  yet  to  secure  bright  green  color,  good  aroma, 
and  freedom  from  dust,  and  to  retain  the  leaves  and  other  finer  parts, 
which,  especially  with  legumes,  easily  fall  off.  During  the  process 
fermentations  produced  by  enzymes  occur,  which  develop  a  charac- 
teristic aroma. 

A  good  but  rather  expensive  method  of  securing  prime  hay  is  to  mow 
the  grass  as  soon  as  the  dew  is  off,  allow  it  to  lie  in  the  swath  until  dry 
on  the  surface,  then  turn  by  hand  or  tedder,  or  rake  into  loose  wind- 
rows. Before  the  dew  falls  make  into  cocks,  and,  if  dry  enough  so 
that  it  will  not  mold,  allow  it  to  remain  in  the  cock  till  it  has  passed 
thru  the  "sweat."  With  legumes  it  is  well  to  protect  the  cocks  from, 
rain  by  hay  caps.  After  the  sweat,  open  the  cocks  in  large  flakes. 
The  hay  will  then  soon  dry  out  enough  to  be  hauled  to  the  barn  or 
stack.     Where  the  grass  is  green  or  damp  when  cocked,  it  may  be 

3Headden,  Colo.  Bui.  IIL 


178  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

necessary  to  open  the  cocks  the  next  morning  to  avoid  molding,  and 
then  recock  the  hay  toward  night,  if  not  yet  dry  enough  to  store. 

By  this  system  the  curing  grass  is  exposed  but  little  to  the  bleaching 
action  of  the  sun  and  dew,  and  there  is  no  marked  loss  of  aroma, 
which,  tho  unweighable,  has  real  value  in  rendering  hay  palatable. 
Before  the  partly  dried  plants  are  piled  into  cocks,  the  leaves  will 
have  dried  out  more  than  the  stems.  As  the  leaves  and  stems  remain 
alive  for  some  time  after  the  grass  has  been  cut,  if  the  material  is 
cocked  before  the  leaves  are  entirely  dried  out  and  thereby  killed,  thej^ 
will  continue  to  draw  water  from  the  stems.  Partially  curing  in  the 
cock  is  especially  important  with  the  legumes,  which  usually  have 
thick,  succulent  stems  that  dry  slow^ly,  while  the  leaves  dry  rapidly, 
and  become  brittle  and  shatter  badly.  Partially  cured  grass  cocked 
in  the  afternoon  entraps  much  warm  air,  which  helps  to  continue  the 
giving  off  of  moisture  during  the  night. 

Hay  put  into  the  barn  when  so  dry  that  it  will  not  pack  well,  is  not 
in  first  class  condition.  It  should  be  mowed  away  with  just  that 
amount  of  moisture  which  allows  it  to  settle  compactly  when  trodden 
down.  Salt  and  lime  scattered  over  damp  hay  when  put  into  the  mow 
tend  to  prevent  fermentation  and  check  the  grow'th  of  molds.  Damp 
hay  may  also  be  improved  by  placing  it  in  alternate  layers  with  dry 
straw,  which  absorbs  moisture  as  well  as  aroma  from  the  hay,  so  that 
cattle  the  more  readily  eat  both  straw  and  hay.  New-made  hay,  which 
is  laxative  and  may  cause  colic  in  horses,  should  not  be  fed  until  the 
sw^eat  in  the  mow  is  over  and  it  has  cooled  off. 

Making  hay  on  a  large  scale. — AYhere  large  acreages  of  hay  are 
made,  it  is  often  unprofitable  to  cure  the  crop  in  cocks,  owing  to  the 
extra  labor,  even  tho  better  hay  is  secured.  Frequently  the  crop  is 
mown  in  the  morning  and  by  frequent  tedding  and  turning  it  is 
housed  before  the  dew  falls  at  night.  In  favorable  weather  even  clover 
and  alfalfa,  when  dry  on  the  surface,  of  the  swath,  are  often  raked 
directly  into  small  windrows  by  a  side-delivery  or  other  rake,  without 
previous  tedding.  After  curing  here  for  a  few  hours,  the  hay  is  loaded 
from  the  swath  by  the  hay  loader,  or  in  the  West  is  hauled  to  the 
stack  with  a  sweep  rake. 

Another  method  is  to  cut  the  crop  late  in  the  afternoon  so  that  the 
dew  will  not  materially  affect  the  plants  during  the  night,  because  they 
are  but  little  wilted.  Even  should  rain  come  it  will  cause  far  less 
injury  than  if  the  plants  were  partially  cured.  The  following  day, 
by  aid  of  tedder  or  rake  the  drying  is  hastened  and  the  hay  placed 
under  cover  or  stacked  before  night. 

When  these  methods  are  followed  wnth  the  legumes,  it  is  impossible 
to  avoid  much  loss  of  the  leaves,  by  far  the  most  valuable  part  of  the 


THE  SMALLER  GRASSES— STRAW  179 

plant,  for  when  curing  in  the  swath  or  windrow  the  leaves  become  dry 
and  brittle  long  before  the  stems  are  dry  enough  to  allow  the  hay  to  be 
stored.  When  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  is  carelessly  made  and  allowed  to 
become  too  dry  most  of  the  leaves  may  be  lost,  carrying  a  large  part  of 
the  feeding  value  of  the  crop.  To  avoid  this  the  wilted  material 
should  be  raked  into  windrows  before  it  has  cured  too  much  in  the 
swath. 

Measurement  and  shrinkage. — In  computing  the  amount  of  hay  in 
a  mow,  it  is  commonly  assumed  that  after  settling  420  cubic  feet  of 
timothy  or  500  of  clover  hay  equals  1  ton.  To  find  the  amount  of  hay 
in  a  stack,  the  following  rule  may  be  used :  * 

Multiply  the  width  of  the  stack  in  feet  by  the  "over"  {i.e.,  the  distance  from 
the  base  on  one  side  of  the  stack  over  the  stack  and  to  the  base  on  the  other 
side),  divide  the  product  by  4,  and  multiply  the  quotient  by  the  length.  This 
gives  the  contents  of  the  stack  in  cubic  feet.  To  find  the  number  of  tons  for 
hay  that  has  stood  for  less  than  30  days,  divide  by  512;  for  30  to  60  days,  by 
422;  over  60  days,  by  380. 

Hay  stored  in  the  mow  will  shrink  in  weight,  due  to  drying  out,  and 
also  to  fermentations  taking  place  during  the  sweating  process,  in 
which  nutrients  are  broken  down  into  carbon  dioxid  and  water.  The 
shrinkage  will  vary,  depending  on  the  water  content  of  the  hay  when 
]3laced  in  the  mow,  and  may  reach  20  per  ct.  or  over.  When  hay  is 
stacked,  the  shrinkage  is  greater,  since  the  outside  of  the  stack  is 
exposed  to  the  weather.  A  stack  12  feet  in  diameter  has  about  one- 
third  of  its  contents  in  the  surface  foot. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  When  does  grass  contain  the  largest  percentage  of  protein  and  at  what 
stage  does  it  yield  the  most  dry  matter  and  total  protein? 

2.  What  are  the  merits  of  Kentucky  bluegrass? 

3.  Why  is  timothy  the  great  hay  grass  of  this  country  and  what  are  its  bad 
points?     When  should  it  be  cut  for  hay? 

4.  Discuss  the  value  of  red  top,  orchard  grass,  brome  grass,  and  the  millets. 

5.  Wliat  is  the  importance  of  the  cereal  grains  for  forage? 

6.  Name  and  discuss  the  value  of  four  grasses  adapted  to  the  South. 

7.  What  mixtures  are  most  successful  in  your  own  locality  for  pasture  and 
permanent  meadow  ? 

8.  Discuss  the  abuse  of  pasturage. 

0.  How  may  straw  be  used  in  stock  feeding?  Compare  the  value  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  straw. 

10.  Describe  the  method  followed  to  secure  the  best  hay.  How  is  hay  made 
on  a  large  scale? 


4  Barnes,  Western  Grazing  Grounds,  p. 


139. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

LEGUMES  FOR  FORAGE 

The  cereal  grains,  forage  from  corn  and  the  sorghums,  and  hay 
from  the  smaller  grasses  are  all  low  in  protein  compared  with  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat.  Therefore,  when  only  these  crops  are  raised,  the 
stockman  must  purchase  large  amounts  of  expensive  protein-rich  con- 
centrates to  provide  balanced  rations  for  his  stock.  Fortunately,  the 
great  group  of  legumes  furnish  bounteous  crops  of  protein-rich,  palat- 
able roughage  that  greatly  reduces  the  need  for  purchased  concen- 
trates. Indeed,  for  many  classes  of  animals  merely  legume  hay  and 
the  farm-grown  grains  furnish  a  most  satisfactory  and  well-balanced 
ration.  The  high  feeding  value  of  the  legumes  is  due  not  only  to  their 
richness  in  protein,  but  also  to  the  abundance  of  lime  they  contain. 
Tho  this  is  required  in  large  amount  by  growing  animals  and  those 
which  are  pregnant  or  giving  milk,  it  is  low  in  the  cereal  grains  and 
present  in  only  fair  amount  in  forage  from  corn  and  the  other  grasses. 
Equally  important  is  the  fact  that  the  legumes  are  able  to  increase  the 
supply  in  the  soil  of  nitrogen,  the  most  expensive  plant  food.  Their 
abundant  and  systematic  growth  on  every  farm  is  thus  necessary  for 
the  economical  maintenance  of  soil  fertility.  Due  to  these  excellencies, 
the  legumes  are  the  best  crop  allies  of  tlie  stockman  in  reducing  his 
bills  both  for  purchased  feed  and  for  commercial  fertilizers. 

In  considering  the  legumes  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  they  flourish 
and  build  up  the  nitrogen  content  of  the  soil  only  when  the  proper 
nodule-forming  bacteria  are  present.  AVhere  these  nitrogen-fixing 
bacteria  are  lacking  in  the  soil,  it  is  necessary  that  it  be  inoculated  by 
some  means. 

I.     Alfalfa 

Importance  of  alfalfa. — Tho  alfalfa  is  especially  adapted  to  the 
semi-arid  plains  and  the  irrigated  districts  of  the  West,  it  can  be 
profitably  grown  in  most  districts  of  the  United  States  where  the  soil 
is  deep,  well-drained,  and  rich  in  lime.  The  acreage  of  alfalfa  in  this 
country  doubled  from  1899  to  1909,  and  increased  over  eight-fold  in 
the  states  east  of  the  Mississippi.  The  reason  for  this  surprising 
advance  is  revealed  in  the  following  table,  which  shows  the  average 
yield  per  acre  in  1909  thruout  the  United  States  of  four  of  our  most 
important  crops. 

180 


LEGUMES  FOR  FORAGE  181 

Average  returns  per  acre  from  alfalfa  and  other  crops 

Digestible  Total 

Yield                         crude  digestible  Net 

per  acre  protein  nutrients.  energy 

Lbs.                           Lbs.  Lbs.  Therms 

Alfalfa    hay    5,040                     534  2,601  1,734 

Clover   hay    2,580                     196  1,313  890 

Timothy  hay   2,440                       73  1,183  819 

Com   (ears  and  stover)  .   3,440                     14G  2,256  1,762 

This  average  for  the  United  States  shows  that  alfalfa  produced  by 
far  the  largest  yield  per  acre,  with  over  2.7  times  as  much  digestible 
crude  protein  as  clover  and  nearly  four  times  as  much  as  corn.  It 
excelled  even  corn,  the  king  of  forage  crops,  in  yield  of  total  digestible 
nutrients,  tho,  due  to  the  high  net  energy  value  of  the  corn  grain,  the 
corn  crop  surpassed  alfalfa  in  yield  of  net  energy. 

Much  larger  yields  of  alfalfa  than  the  average  shown  in  the  table 
are  easily  secured  under  favorable  conditions,  even  in  the  eastern 
states.  When  amply  watered  by  irrigation,  alfalfa  furnishes  2  to  5 
cuttings  a  season,  yielding  as  high  as  5  tons  of  nutritious  hay  per  acre. 
In  the  hot  irrigated  districts  of  the  Southwest  9  or  even  more  cuttings 
have  been  secured  in  a  season.  AVhen  high  temperature  is  combined 
with  a  humid  climate,  alfalfa  generally  fails  unless  the  soil  is  unusually 
favorable.  AVhere  both  soil  and  climate  are  suitable,  this  long-time 
perennial  returns  good  crops  for  many  j-ears  without  reseeding. 

Alfalfa  for  hay.— Tho  alfalfa  hay  is  richer  in  protein  than  red 
clover  hay,  it  contains  slightly  less  carbohydrates  and  is  lower  in  fat. 
Alfalfa  hay  is  thus  somewhat  more  valuable  than  clover  hay  in  balanc- 
ing rations  low  in  protein,  but  when  fed  with  concentrates  containing 
ample  protein  is  not  superior  to  clover.  The  chief  superiority  over 
clover  lies  not  in  a  higher  feeding  value  per  ton  but  in  the  fact  that 
where  alfalfa  thrives  it  j'ields  more  tons  of  hay  per  acre. 

Alfalfa  should  be  cut  for  hay  as  soon  as  new  shoots  are  well  started 
at  the  crown  of  the  plant.  Cutting  later  than  this  reduces  the  yield  of 
the  next  crop,  for  many  of  the  longer  shoots  will  be  clipped  by  the 
mower.  By  harvesting  the  crop  at  this  early  stage  the  maximum 
yield  for  the  whole  season  is  obtained,  and  the  hay  is  more  leafy  and 
palatable.  It  also  contains  more  protein  and  is  more  digestible  than 
if  cut  later,  when  it  contains  more  fiber.  Early-cut  hay  is  preferable 
for  all  farm  animals  except  the  horse,  for  which  late-cut  is  better 
since,  tho  less  nutritious,  it  is  less  washy.  In  certain  sections  of  the 
West  the  first  cutting  often  contains  much  wild  foxtail,  or  squirrel- 
tail  grass,  which  has  coarse  beards  that  are  in.jurious  to  stock  if  the 
hay  is  cut  at  the  usual  stage.  In  such  eases  the  alfalfa  may  be  cut 
earlier,  when  the  young  foxtail  will  make  good  hay,  or  the  crop  may 
be  ensiled,  which  will  soften  the  beards. 


182  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Feeding  alfalfa  hay. — Since  it  is  rich  both  in  protein  and  in  mineral 
matter,  especially  lime,  which  is  needed  in  large  amonnt  in  milk  pro- 
duction, alfalfa  hay  is  a  most  excellent  feed  for  dairy  cows.  ]\lore- 
over,  it  is  highly  palatable  and  has  a  beneficial  laxative  effect.  The 
statement  sometimes  made  that  alfalfa  hay  is  equal  to  wheat  bran  for 
dairy  cows  is  not  true,  however.  It  supplies  only  about  nine-tenths  as 
much  digestible  crude  protein  as  bran,  contains  nearly  3  times  as  much 
fiber,  and  furnishes  only  70  per  ct.  as  much  net  energy.  Altho  much 
less  concentrates  are  needed  when  alfalfa  hay  is  fed  than  when  a 


Fig.  50. — Cutting  Alfalfa  in  a  Western  Irrigated  District 

Wherever  it  thrives,  the  acreage  of  alfalfa  is_  rapidly  increasing,  clue  to  tlie 
large  yield  of  excellent  hay  it  produces.      (From'U.  S.  Reclamation  Service.) 

roughage  like  timothy  hay  is  used,  all  the  concentrates  in  the  ration 
cannot  be  replaced,  even  by  this  most  valuable  roughage,  without 
reducing  the  milk  yield  of  the  cows. 

The  fattening  of  cattle  and  sheep  in  the  western  states  has  been 
revolutionized  by  the  use  of  alfalfa  hay,  due  to  the  large  and  econom- 
ical gains  secured  when  this  protein-rich  roughage  is  fed  with  the 
carbonaceous  grains  and  perhaps  silage  or  wet  beet  pulp.  Breeding 
cattle  and  young  stock  wintered  on  alfalfa  hay,  preferably  with  silage 
in  addition,  will  more  than  maintain  their  weight.  For  breeding  ewes, 
alfalfa  hay  is  equally  satisfactory.     Owing  to  the  fondness  of  horses 


LEGUMES  FOR  FORAGE  183 

for  this  roughage,  the  allowance  should  be  restricted,  lest  they  overeat. 
Fed  in  proper  amount,  alfalfa  hay  has  given  satisfaction  as  the  only 
roughage,  even  for  horses  at  rapid  work.  Alfalfa  hay  can  be  largely 
used  in  maintaining  breeding  sv*^ine  in  winter,  and  even  for  fattening 
pigs  a  limited  amount  may  aid  in  producing  cheap  gains. 

Pasturing  alfalfa. — Alfalfa  is  not  primarily  a  pasture  plant,  for, 
particularly  in  humid  regions,  grazing  is  apt  to  injure  the  stand. 
Moreover,  cattle,  and  especially  sheep,  run  risk  from  bloat  when  on 
alfalfa  pasture.  Nevertheless,  it  furnishes  such  nutritious  feed  that 
it  is  grazed  on  many  farms  even  in  the  humid  eastern  states.  To 
avoid  serious  injury  to  the  stand,  the  fields  should  not  be  pastured 
until  the  stand  has  become  well  established,  and  animals  should  be 
kept  off  when  the  ground  is  soft,  muddy,  or  frozen.  Heavy  stocking 
of  the  pasture  is  decidedly  injurious,  especially  with  horses  and  sheep, 
which  gnaw  the  plants  to  the  ground.  Except  where  the  winters  are 
mild,  alfalfa  should  be  allowed  to  grow  to  a  height  of  6  to  12  inches 
in  the  fall  for  winter  protection. 

Alfalfa  pasture  is  excellent  for  horses  and  pigs,  which  are  not  sub- 
ject to  bloat.  For  colts  and  young  horses  the  succulent  alfalfa,  rich 
in  protein  and  mineral  matter,  is  especially  helpful.  On  thousands  of 
farms  it  is  the  foundation  of  cheap  pork  production.  The  danger  to 
cattle  and  sheep  from  bloat  varies  greatly  with  climate  and  other  fac- 
tors. Tho  there  is  always  some  risk,  in  such  districts  as  the  hot  irri- 
gated sections  of  the  Southwest  but  little  loss  is  experienced.  Where 
cattle  or  sheep  are  grazed  on  alfalfa  the  following  precautions  should 
be  taken :  ^ 

For  permanent  pasture  sow  with  alfalfa,  bluegrass,  brome  grass  or  some 
other  grass  adapted  to  your  particular  conditions.  Use  upland  in  preference  to 
lowland  for  pastiu'e,  and  have  a  constant  supply  of  water  for  the  stock.  Frosted 
alfalfa  is  especiallj'  dangerous,  but  in  the  late  fall  after  the  crop  has  dried  it  may 
be  grazed  again.  Before  turning  animals  on  alfalfa  for  the  first  time,  allow 
them  to  fill  up  on  grass  pasture,  Avith  grain  in  addition  if  they  have  been  ac- 
customed to  it.  Then  in  the  middle  of  the  forenoon,  when  they  do  not  care  to 
graze  longer,  turn  them  on  the  alfalfa.  Tlio  some  advise  allowing  the  stock 
to  graze  only  a  few  minutes  the  first  day  and  gradually  increasing  the  length 
of  time  on  the  following  days,  it  is  probably  safer  to  keep  them  on  the  pasture 
continuously,  for  they  will  then  never  consume  undue  amounts  at  one  time. 
Watch  the  stock  closely  for  the  first  few  days  and  remove  permanently  those 
animals  which  show  symptoms  of  bloat,  for  individuals  differ  in  their  suscepti- 
bility to  the  trouble.  A  method  used  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley,  California, 
when  starting  cattle  on  alfalfa  pasture  is  to  cut  part  of  a  field  and  turn  the  cattle 
on  this  portion  after  the  alfalfa  is  half  dry.  Then  after  they  are  well  filled  they 
are  allowed  to  eat  whatever  of  the  green  crop  they  wish. 

1  Partly  adapted  from  Coburn,  The  Book  of  Alfalfa,  pp.  109-119;  and  Wing, 
Alfalfa  Farming  in  America,  pp.  338-344. 


184  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Alfalfa  for  soilage. — Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  all  soil- 
ing crops,  owing  to  the  large  yields  and  to  the  fact  that  under  proper 
management  it  will  furnish  rich  succulence  thruout  the  entire  summer. 
Much  more  forage,  even  twice  as  much  in  some  cases,  is  secured  from 
a  given  acreage  as  soilage  than  when  it  is  pastured.  In  certain  hot 
irrigated  sections  of  the  West  where  no  grasses  make  satisfactory 
summer  pasture  dairy  cows  are  often  maintained  chiefly  on  alfalfa 
soilage  during  much  of  the  year.  Whether  it  is  profitable  to  feed 
alfalfa  as  soilage  rather  than  to  pasture  it  will  depend  on  the  relative 
cost  of  land  and  labor. 

Alfalfa  silage.— In  some  instances  alfalfa  is  ensiled  with  success, 
tho  often  a  poor,  vile-smelling  silage  is  produced.  The  difficulty  seems 
due  to  the  high  protein  content  of  the  crop  compared  with  the  small 
amount  of  sugars,  from  which  the  acids  necessary  to  preserve  the  silage 
are  formed.  Owing  to  the  palatability  of  good  alfalfa  hay,  there  is 
little  reason  for  ensiling  the  crop,  except  when  it  cannot  be  cured  in  a 
satisfactory  manner.  Alfalfa  should  be  ensiled  as  soon  after  mowing 
as  possible  and  cut  into  short  lengths  so  that  it  may  be  well  packed. 
When  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  partial  curing,  it  should  be  ensiled 
with  the  dew  on  or  water  should  be  added.  Better  silage  is  made  when 
alfalfa  is  ensiled  along  with  crops  rich  in  sugars,  such  as  rye  or  wheat 
cut  when  just  past  the  milk  stage,  or  green  corn  or  sorghum. 

Alfalfa  meal  and  feed. — The  manufacture  of  alfalfa  meal  (ground 
alfalfa  hay)  and  various  feeds  containing  more  or  less  of  this  material 
has  increased  rapidly  of  late.  For  animals  having  good  teeth  and 
time  to  chew  their  food,  grinding  hay  does  not  increase  its  digestibility 
or  feeding  value.  For  such  animals  the  only  advantages  of  the  meal 
are  that  it  may  be  easier  to  transport  and  there  is  somewhat  less  waste 
in  feeding  it.  The  bulky  meal  is  also  helpful  in  diluting  heavy  con- 
centrates, which  might  cause  digestive  troubles  if  carelessly  fed.  Hay 
can,  however,  be  readily  chopped  sufficiently  fine  for  this  purpose  on 
the  farm  by  merely  running  it  thru  a  silage  cutter.  Unless  good 
alfalfa  meal  sells  at  an  appreciably  lower  price  than  wheat  bran,  its 
purchase  cannot  be  recommended,  for  its  feeding  value  is  lower. 
Ordinarily,  the  stockman  can  produce  roughage  cheaper  on  his  farm 
than  he  can  buy  it  in  feed  sacks.  Often  one  cannot  tell  by  its  appear- 
ance whether  the  meal  has  been  made  from  nutritious,  early-cut  hay 
or  from  over-ripe,  stemmy  material.  It  should  therefore  be  bought 
on  a  guarantee  of  composition,  and  the  fiber  content  should  not  be  over 
about  30  per  ct. 

Molasses,  either  beet  or  cane,  is  frequently  mixed  with  alfalfa  meal, 
the  product  being  sold  as  "alfalmo"  or  under  other  names.  The  mix- 
ture is  well-liked  by  stock,  but  its  economy  as  a  feed  must  be  deter- 


LEGUMES  FOR  EORAGE 


185 


mined  by  comparing-  the  composition  and  price  with  those  of  other 
feeds.  Many  mixed  feeds,  discussed  in  Chapter  XI,  contain  more  or 
less  alfalfa  meal. 

II.    Red  Clover 

Medium  red  clover. — This  clover,  commonly  known  simply  as  red 
clover,  is  the  most  important  legume  in  the  humid  sections  of  the 
northern  two-thirds  of  the  United 
States,  where,  grown  in  rotation 
with  corn  and  the  cereals,  it  so 
helpfully  serves  for  hay  and  pas- 
ture productiosi  and  for  the  main- 
tenance of  soil  fertility.  Clover  is 
chiefly  seeded  in  combination  with 
timothy,  19,542,000  acres  of  mixed 
clover  and  timothy  being  grown 
for  hay  in  the  United  States  in 
1909,  compared  with  only  2,443,- 
000  acres  of  clover  alone.  Red 
clover  does  best  on  well-drained 
soils  rich  in  lime,  not  thriving  on 
a  water-logged  or  acid  soil.  But 
few  plants  live  over  3  j-ears,  and 
the  crop  is  usually  treated  as  a  bi- 
ennial. 

Red  clover  generally  yields  a 
heavy  first  crop  of  hay,  with  a 
lighter  second  cutting,  which  is 
often  allowed  to  mature  for  seed. 

In  the  southern  states,  where  it  does  not  thrive  dviring  the  heat  of 
summer,  red  clover  is  sometimes  grown  as  a  winter  annual,  the  first 
crop  being  cut  in  the  spring  and  the  second  in  early  summer.  The  av- 
erage yield  of  clover  hay  per  acre,  according  to  the  census  of  1910,  was 
1.29  tons,  but  under  favorable  conditions  much  higher  returns  are  se- 
cured, the  yield  in  2  cuttings  ranging  from  2  to  4  tons  or  even  more  per 
acre.  Where  it  flourishes,  alfalfa  out-yields  red  clover.  However,  red 
clover  is  better  adapted  for  short-time  rotations  with  other  crops  like 
corn  and  the  cereals  than  the  longer-lived  alfalfa,  which  is  often  diffi- 
cult to  establish  and  is  therefore  grown  in  the  same  field  for  many 
3'ears,  if  possible.  In  their  eagerness  to  grow  alfalfa  many  eastern 
farmers  are  unfortunately  neglecting  the  clovers,  which  are  vitally 
helpful  in  keeping  up  the  fertility  of  the  whole  farm  thru  short-time 
rotations.    In  many  cases  the  growing  of  red  or  mammoth  clover  has 


Fig.  51. — A  Young  Red  Clover  Plant, 
Sliowing  the  Tubercles  on  the 
Roots.  (From  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture.) 


186  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

been  abandoned  on  account  of  failure  to  secure  stands.  Such  ''clover 
sickness"  of  the  soil  may  be  due  to  certain  diseases,  but  in  most  cases 
it  means  that  lime,  phosphate,  and  possibly  potash  are  needed.  Farm- 
ers who  willingly  prepare  fields  thoroly  for  alfalfa  often  fail  to  make 
reasonable  efforts  to  get  good  stands  of  clover. 

Red  clover  for  hay. — Clover  yields  the  largest  amount  of  hay  per 
acre,  and  also  more  crude  protein,  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  fat  when 
cut  at  full  bloom.  After  this  period  only  the  fiber  increases,  the  other 
nutrients  growing  less,  due  to  the  withering  and  dropping  of  the  lower 
leaves  and  the  leaching  of  the  plants  by  rains.  This  shrinkage  of 
nutrients  as  clover  matures  is  similar  to  that  in  the  smaller  grasses 
and  opposite  to  what  occurs  in  the  corn  crop.  While  full  bloom  is 
theoretically  the  best  time  to  cut  clover  for  hay,  practical  experience 
shows  that  it  is  best  to  wait  until  about  one-third  of  the  blossom  heads 
have  turned  brown.  This  is  because  at  any  earlier  date  the  plant  is 
so  soft  and  sappy  that  it  is  difficult  to  cure  it  into  good  hay.  Delaying 
until  all  the  heads  are  dead  makes  haying  still  easier,  but  means  a 
poor,  woody,  unpalatable  product. 

Clover  for  hay. — Well-cured  clover  hay,  bright  and  with  leaves  in- 
tact, is  an  excellent  roughage  for  all  farm  stock.  Tho  dusty  clover 
hay  is  to  be  avoided  for  feeding  horses,  that  of  good  quality  is  suc- 
cessfully and  economically  used  with  both  farm  and  city  horses. 
Mixed  clover  and  timothy  hay  is  preferred  by  many  to  clear  clover  hay 
for  horse  feeding,  since  it  usually  is  freer  from  dust. 

No  investigations  of  the  experiment  stations  in  animal  husbandry 
have  been  more  helpful  than  those  showing  the  great  value  of  the 
legumes  for  fattening  cattle  and  sheep.  By  adding  clover  hay  to  the 
ration,  the  grain  requirement  can  be  materially  reduced  and  the  fat- 
tening period  shortened — both  matters  of  great  importance  in  these 
days  of  high-priced  concentrates.  For  the  cow,  clover  hay  is  unex- 
celled as  a  roughage,  unless  by  alfalfa.  Where  well-cured  clover  hay 
furnishes  one-half  or  more  of  the  roughage,  the  dairyman  is  able  to 
cut  the  allowance  of  concentrates  and  materially  reduce  the  cost  of  the 
ration.  This  roughage  has  the  same  high  place  for  feeding  breeding 
ewes,  wintering  cattle,  and  especially  for  young  animals.  Early-cut 
clover  hay  ranks  next  to  alfalfa  for  swine,  being  especially  valuable 
for  breeding  stock. 

Clover  for  pasture,  soilage  and  silage. — Clover  pasture  is  helpful 
and  important  for  all  farm  animals.  It  about  maintains  pigs,  so  that 
all  the  grain  fed  goes  to  make  gain.  Pigs  on  clover  are  healthy  and 
have  good  bone  and  constitution — points  of  special  importance  with 
breeding  stock.  Tho  there  is  somewhat  less  danger  from  bloat  with 
clover  than  alfalfa,  cattle  and  sheep  should  not  be  turned  on  clover 


LEGUMES  FOR  FORAGE  187 

pasture  for  the  first  time  while  hungry  or  before  the  dew  has  risen. 
Dry  forage,  such  as  hay  or  straw,  should  also  be  placed  in  feed  racks 
in  the  pasture. 

Clover  is  particularly  valuable  for  soilage,  ranking  next  to  alfalfa, 
and  furnishes  3  or  4  cuttings  annually  if  the  weather  is  favorable. 
In  some  cases  clover  has  made  good  silage,  but  so  many  failures  have 
occurred  that  this  plant  cannot  be  recommended  for  such  purpose, 
except  where  weather  conditions  prevent  its  being  properly  cured  into 
hay.  The  same  precautions  should  then  be  taken  as  with  alfalfa  for 
silage. 

III.     Other  Clovers  and  Leguminous  Forage  Plants 

Mammoth  clover. — This  clover  grows  ranker  than  medium  red 
clover,  has  coarser  stems,  and  blooms  2  to  3  weeks  later.  It  usually 
lives  3  years  or  more  and  thrives  better  on  poor  or  sandy  soil  than 
does  red  clover.  As  it  is  coarser,  the  hay  is  more  difficult  to  cure  and 
somewhat  less  palatable.  Since  it  yields  but  a  single  cutting  during 
the  season,  this  clover  is  frequently  pastured  for  several  weeks  in  the 
early  spring.  After  the  stock  is  removed  the  plants  shoot  up  and  are 
soon  ready  for  the  mower. 

Alsike  clover. — Alsike  clover  flourishes  on  land  too  acid  or  too  wet 
for  other  clovers  and  is  a  hardier,  longer-lived  plant,  enduring  4  to  6 
years  on  good  soil.  Since  it  j^ields  but  one  cutting,  it  is  excelled  by 
red  clover  where  the  latter  thrives.  However,  as  alsike  will  grow  on 
"clover-sick"  soil,  it  is  replacing  red  clover  on  many  fields.  It  should 
be  seeded  with  timothy  or  other  grasses  to  support  the  weak  stems. 
Alsike  hay  is  fine-stemmed  and  fully  equal  to  red  clover  in  value. 

White  clover. — This  creeping  perennial  thrives  in  almost  any  soil 
from  Canada  nearly  to  the  Gulf  of  ^Mexico,  if  moisture  is  ample.  In 
the  North  it  is  important  in  mixed  pastures,  forming  a  dense  mat  of 
herbage  thruout  the  growing  season.  In  the  South  it  nearly  disap- 
pears in  summer,  but  reappears  in  the  fall  furnishing  winter  pas- 
turage, and  thus  combines  well  with  Bermuda  grass.  Owing  to  its 
low  growth  it  does  not  yield  hay. 

Sweet  clover. — White  sweet  clover  is  a  biennial  widely  distributed 
along  roadsides  and  in  waste  places  over  southern  Canada  and  a  large 
part  of  the  United  States,  thriving  best  on  soils  rich  in  lime.  It  will 
grow  in  soil  so  poorly  drained  or  so  worn  and  low  in  humus  that  al- 
falfa or  red  clover  will  not  live.  Where  these  more  valuable  legumes 
do  not  thrive,  sweet  clover,  which  was  once  viewed  as  a  weed,  is  of 
considerable  value.  It  may  be  used  for  pasture,  hay,  and  soilage,  and 
has  occasionally  been  ensiled.  At  first  animals  usually  refuse  sweet 
clover,  for  all  parts  of  the  plant  contain  cumarin,  a  bitter  compound 


188  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

with  a  vanilla-like  odor.  In  spring  the  herbage  is  less  bitter  and  ani- 
mals of  all  classes  can  generally  then  be  taught  to  eat  it.  When  the 
clover  is  cured  a  large  part  of  the  cumarin  is  volatilized,  the  hay  thus 
being  less  bitter  than  the  green  plants. 

Sweet  clover  seed  should  be  thickly  sown  so  that  the  stems  will  not 
grow  coarse,  and  especially  in  the  second  year  the  crop  should  be  cut 
when  the  first  blossoms  appear,  or  even  before,  since  after  this  stage 
the  plants  rapidly  grow  woody.  The  first  season  1  cutting  and  the 
second  2  can  be  secured  in  the  North,  and  often  3  in  the  South.  The 
crop  should  be  cut  about  6  inches  from  the  ground,  for  the  new  shoots 


Fig.  52. — A  Field  op  Crimson  Clover  in  Bloom 

Crimson  clover,  grown  cliiefly  as  a  green  manure  and  a  winter  cover  crop,  is 
also  used  for  pasture  and  hay.      (From  Coxivtry  Gentleman.) 

grow  out  not  from  the  crown,  as  in  alfalfa,  but  from  the  stems.  Sweet 
clover  makes  good  hay  for  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  and  furnishes  good 
pasture  for  pigs.  It  should  be  closely  grazed  to  keep  the  plants  from 
l)ecoming  woody.  The  yellow-flowered  sweet  clover  is  two  weeks  ear- 
lier and  smaller  in  growth  than  the  white  variety. 

Crimson  clover.— This  annual,  adapted  to  mild  climates,  is  grown 
chiefly  in  the  Atlantic  seaboard  states  from  New  Jersey  southward. 
Sown  in  the  late  summer  or  early  fall,  it  blossoms  the  following  spring 
and  dies  by  early  summer.  It  is  grown  chiefly  as  green  manure  and  a 
winter  cover  crop,  but  is  also  used  for  pasture  and  hay,  and  to  some 


LEGUMES  FOR  FORAGE  189 

extent  for  soilage.  Crimson  clover  thrives  on  both  sandy  and  clay 
land,  if  well  drained,  and  has  the  advantage  that  the  crop  may  be 
harvested  or  plowed  under  as  manure  early  enough  so  that  other  crops 
may  be  raised  the  same  year.  When  grown  for  hay  it  is  important 
that  crimson  clover  be  cut  by  the  time  the  flowers  at  the  base  of  the 
most  advanced  heads  have  faded.  After  this,  the  minute  barbed  hairs 
of  the  blossom  heads  and  stems  become  hard  and  wiry.  If  hay  from 
over-ripe  clover  is  fed  to  horses  or  mules  these  hairs  sometimes  mat 
together  in  the  digestive  tract,  forming  felt-like  masses  which  plug 
the  intestines,  causing  death.  Cut  at  the  right  stage,  crimson  clover 
hay  is  about  equal  to  that  from  red  clover. 

Bur  clovers. — The  southern  hur  clover  and  the  California  hur 
clover  are  winter  annuals  that  furnish  valuable  pasturage  in  mild  re- 
gions. The  former,  which  is  the  hardier,  is  found  chiefly  in  the  south- 
ern states,  and  the  latter  in  California  and  Texas.  They  are  admir- 
able supplements  to  Bermuda  pasture,  furnishing  feed  when  that 
grass  is  resting  and  reseeding  unless  grazed  too  closely.  Even  on 
land  where  summer  cultivated  crops  are  grown,  bur  clover,  if  once 
sown,  volunteers  in  the  fall. 

The  common  field-pea  vine.— The  common  field  pea,  discussed  as  a 
grain  crop  in  Chapter  X,  is  grown  in  Canada  and  the  northern  states 
to  some  extent  for  forage.  Peas  and  oats,  if  cut  early,  make  nutritious 
hay  well  liked  by  all  classes  of  stock,  and  also  silage  of  good  quality. 
The  combination  is  frequently  sown  as  a  spring  soiling  crop,  espe- 
cially for  dairy  cows,  or  as  pasturage,  chiefly  for  swine.  In  some  of 
the  irrigated  Rocky  Mountain  valleys  field  peas,  usually  with  a  small 
quantity  of  oats  or  barley,  are  sown  extensively  and  grazed  when 
nearly  mature  by  sheep  and  pigs. 

Pea-cannery  refuse.- — Formerly  the  bruised  pea  vines  and  empty 
pods  from  the  pea  canneries  were  used  only  for  manure.  This  rich 
by-product  is  now  usually  preserved  in  silos  or  in  large  stacks,  where 
the  decaying  exterior  preserves  the  mass  within.  The  silage  has  a 
strong  odor  but  is  relished  by  all  farm  animals,  especially  dairy  cows, 
fattening  cattle,  and  sheep. 

Cowpea. — This  hot  weather  annual  is  the  most  important  legume  in 
the  cotton  belt,  furnishing  grain  for  humans  and  animals,  tho  chiefly 
grown  for  forage  and  green  manure.  It  flourishes  on  all  types  of  soil 
and  with  but  little  attention,  increasing  the  fertility  of  the  land  and 
furnishing  rich  hay,  pasturage,  soilage,  and  silage.  Sown  at  corn 
planting  or  later,  early  varieties  mature  the  first  pods  in  70  to  90 
days.  The  crop  may  be  then  cut  for  hay,  or  the  harvesting  consid- 
erably delayed  without  loss.  Cowpeas  yield  from  1  to  3  tons  of  hay 
per  acre  which  is  equal  to  red  clover  or  alfalfa  in  value  and  is  an 


190 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


excellent  roughage  for  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep.  When  cowpea  hay  is 
fed  to  dairy  cows  or  fattening  steers  the  concentrates  maj'  be  re- 
duced to  one-half  the  amount  needed  when  a  carbonaceous  roughage, 
such  as  corn  stover  or  hay  from  the  grasses,  is  fed.  To  support  the 
vines,  cowpeas  are  often  grown  with  corn  or  sorghum.  Frequently, 
some  of  the  cowpea  seed  is  picked  by  hand,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
crop  grazed  by  cattle,  sheep,  or  pigs.  Cowpeas  and  corn  or  sorghum 
also  make  palatable  protein-rich  silage.  Thru  greater  use  of  cow- 
peas and  the  other  legumes  which  flourish  there  the  live-stock  industry 
of  the  South  may  be  enormously  increased. 

Soybean. — Soybeans,  which  mature  sufficiently  for  hay  wherever 
corn  may  be  grown  for  silage,  and  are  not  injured  by  slight  frosts, 
are  better  adapted  to  the  northern  part  of  the  corn  belt  than  cowpeas. 
Tho  more  drought-resistant  than  cowpeas,  they  will  not  thrive  on 
such  poor  land.     The  plants,  which  are  bushy,  should  be  cut  for  hay 


Fig.  53. — Soybeans  Which  Yielded  2.5  Tons  of  Hay  Per  Acre 

Soybeans  are  adapted  to  the  same  range  of  climate  as  corn  and,  because  of 
their  resistance  to  drought,  are  especially  suited  to  sandy  soils.  (From  Breeder's 
(Jazette.) 


when  the  pods  are  well  formed  but  before  the  leaves  begin  to  turn 
yellow,  for  soon  thereafter  the  stems  become  woody  and  the  leaves 
easily  drop  off.  The  crop  yields  from  1  to  3  tons  per  acre  of  ha}^ 
equal  to  cowpea  or  alfalfa  hay  in  feeding  value.  While  soybeans 
alone  make  rank  smelling  silage,  1  ton  of  soybeans  ensiled  with  3  to 


LEGUMES  FOR  FORAGE 


191 


4  tons  of  corn  or  sorghum  forage  makes  a  satisfactory  product.  For 
this  purpose  the  soybeans  and  corn  or  sorghum  may  be  mixed  as  en- 
siled, or  they  may  be  grown  together.  In  the  South  soybeans  alone  or 
soybeans  and  corn  are  often  grazed  by  hogs.  For  this  purpose  the 
beans  should  be  planted  in  rows  to  lessen  the  loss  by  tramping,  and  the 
hogs  should  not  be  turned  in  until  the  pods  are  nearly  mature.  In 
the  northern  states  the  chief  value  of  soybeans  is  for  sandy  land  or 
as  a  catch  crop  when  clover  or  other  crops  fail. 

Vetch.— Of  the  vetches,  only  the  hairy  or  sand  vetch,  and  the  com- 
mon vetch  are  important  in  the  United  States.  Both  are  ordinarily 
annuals,  tho  the  hairy  vetch  especially  may  live  more  than  a  year. 


'Miir'ci 


Fig.  54. — Hairy  Vetch  and  Rye  in  Virginia 

As  liairy  vetch  has  weak  vines  wliich  grow  from  4  to  10  feet  in  a  tangled 
mass,  it  is  usually  grown  with  the  cereals  for  hay.  (From  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture.) 

Being  cool-weather  plants,  in  mild  climates  they  are  usually  sown  in 
the  fall.  While  common  vetch  is  killed  by  zero  temperatures,  hairy 
vetch  usually  endures  the  winter  in  the  northern  states  if  well  estab- 
lished in  the  fall.  Hairy  vetch  may  be  grown  in  poorer  soil  than  its 
relative  and  is  markedly  drought  resistant.  It  is  chiefly  grown  for 
hay,  being  usually  sown  with  the  cereals,  which  support  the  weak 
vines  that  grow  from  4  to  10  feet  in  a  tangled  mass.  Where  the  win- 
ters are  mild  and  the  soil  rich,  common  vetch  is  preferred,  as  the  seed 


192  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

is  cheaper  and  the  vines  grow  less  tangled.  The  vetches  yield  from 
1.5  to  2.5  tons  or  more  of  hay  per  acre  and  furnish  excellent  pasturage 
for  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine. 

Lespedeza. — Japan  clover,  commonly  called  lespedeza  in  the  South, 
is  a  summer  annual  which  has  now  spread  over  most  of  the  territory 
from  central  New  Jersey  westward  to  central  Kansas  and  south  to  the 
Gulf.  Here,  even  on  the  poorest  soils,  it  appears  spontaneously  in 
mixed  pastures,  and  unless  closely  grazed  reseeds  freely.  On  the 
poorer  lands  of  the  cotton  belt  lespedeza  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable 
pasture  plant,  adding  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  binding  it  together,  pre- 
venting washing,  and  furnishing  pasturage  well-liked  by  all  stock. 
This  legume  has  not  been  known  to  cause  bloat.  Only  on  rich  soil 
does  it  grow  tall  enough  for  hay. 

Velvet  beans.— The  tropical  velvet  bean  flourishes  south  of  a  line 
drawn  from  Savannah,  Georgia,  to  Austin,  Texas.  The  vines,  which 
run  on  the  ground  from  15  to  75  feet,  are  difficult  to  cure  into  hay, 
and  are  mostly  used  for  grazing.  As  high  as  30  bushels  of  shelled 
beans  per  acre  have  been  secured.  The  beans  are  commonly  fed  in 
the  pod,  1.5  tons  of  pod  beans  being  worth  as  much  as  1  ton  of  cot- 
tonseed meal  for  dairy  cows.  When  fed  exclusively,  velvet  beans 
produce  poor  quality  pork. 

Beggar  weed. — This  annual  legume,  which  has  rather  woody  stalks 
3  to  10  feet  high  bearing  abundant  leafage,  is  used  for  green  forage 
and  hay  production  in  the  sub-tropical  regions  of  our  country.  Cut 
at  the  beginning  of  bloom,  when  3  to  4  feet  high,  it  yields  from  2.25 
to  4  tons  of  excellent  hay  per  acre. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  advantages  of  leguminous  rougliages? 

2.  Compare  alfalfa  hay  with  timothy  hay  and  discuss  its  importance  for 
stock  feeding. 

3.  How  would  you  use  alfalfa  for  pasture? 

4.  Discuss  the  use  of  alfalfa  for  soilage;   for  silage. 

5.  What  is  the  value  of  alfalfa  meal? 

6.  Summarize  the  advantages  of  red  clover  in  farming  and  stock  feeding. 

7.  Treat  briefly  of  the  value  of  the  other  clovers — mammoth,  alsike,  white, 
sweet,   crimson,  and  bur. 

8.  How  are  field  peas  used  as  a  forage  plant? 

9.  Discuss  the  value  and  uses. of  cowpeas,  soybeans,  vetch,  lespedeza,  and  velvet 


CHAPTER  XV 

ROOTS,  TUBERS,  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  FORAGES 

I.    Roots  and  Tubers 

In  northern  Europe  and  in  eastern  Canada  root  crops  are  exten- 
sively grown  for  stock,  but  in  this  country  they  have  never  been 
widely  used.  Indeed,  in  1909  over  5,000  acres  of  corn  were  raised  in 
the  United  States  for  each  acre  of  roots  grown  for  feeding.  This  dif- 
ference is  natural,  for  northern  Europe,  with  its  cool  summers,  is 
well  suited  to  growing  roots  but  not  corn.  In  most  parts  of  our 
country  the  summers  are  hot  and  this  imperial  grain  and  forage  crop 
thrives,  furnishing  in  corn  silage  a  palatable  succulent  feed  cheaper 
than  roots.  Therefore,  growing  roots  for  stock  is  advisable  only  in 
those  districts  where  the  summers  are  too  cool  for  corn,  and  on  farms 
in  the  corn  belt  where  too  few  animals  are  kept  to  use  silage  econom- 
ically, or  where  roots  serve  as  a  relish  for  show  animals  or  dairy  cows 
on  official  test  or  for  swine  or  poultry. 

Use  and  value  of  roots. — Since  the  dry  matter  of  roots  is  as  di- 
gestible as  that  of  the  grains,  roots  should  not  be  regarded  as  rough- 
ages, but  as  watered  concentrates.  For  dairy  cows  a  pound  of  dry 
matter  in  roots  is  as  valuable  as  a  pound  of  dry  matter  in  corn  or 
barley,  and  roots  can  replace  half  the  concentrates  ordinarily  fed, 
without  reducing  the  yield  of  milk  or  butter.  In  addition  to  the 
nutrients  they  furnish,  roots  and  other  succulent  feeds  have  a  bene- 
ficial tonic  effect  upon  animals,  and  are  especially  helpful  in  keeping 
breeding  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  in  thrifty  condition.  Many  suc- 
cessful stockmen  recommend  roots  highly  for  animals  being  fitted  for 
show  and  for  dairy  cows  crowded  to  maximum  production  on  official 
tests. 

In  this  country  the  daily  allowance  of  roots  per  1,000  lbs.  live 
weight  is  from  25  to  50  lbs.  or  less,  while  in  Great  Britain  it  is  often 
100  lbs.  or  more.  Roots  are  usually  chopped  or  sliced  before  feeding 
and  often  meal  is  sprinkled  over  them  in  the  feed  box.  Considerable 
straw  and  other  low-grade  roughage  may  be  advantageously  fed  with 
roots  by  following  the  English  practice  of  pulping  the  roots,  spread- 
ing them  in  layers  with  chaffed  straw  or  hay  and  shovelling  the 
mass  over,  and  then  feeding  after  several  hours,  when  the  roughage 

193 


194  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

is  moistened  and  softened.  In  the  northern  states,  roots  must  be 
stored  in  winter  in  well-ventilated  pits  or  cellars;  in  mild  climates 
they  may  remain  in  the  fields  until  fed.  In  Great  Britain  sheep  are 
often  grazed  on  root  crops,  saving  the  labor  of  harvesting. 

Roots  vs.  corn  silage. — To  grow,  harvest,  and  store  an  acre  of  roots 
costs  considerably  more  than  to  grow  an  acre  of  corn  and  ensile  it, 
because  root  crops  require  more  thoro  preparation  of  the  soil  and  far 
more  hand  labor  in  cultivation,  harvesting,  and  storage.  IMoreover, 
trials  at  three  stations  show  that  corn  silage  will  yield  on  the  average 
from  68  to  92  per  ct.  more  dry  matter  per  acre  than  mangels,  sugar 
beets,  or  rutabagas.  Where  corn  thrives  corn  silage  will  furnish  dry 
matter  at  half  the  cost  of  roots  or  less,  and  in  trials  with  dairy  cows 
the  dry  matter  of  corn  silage  has  proven  fully  as  valuable  as  that  of 
roots.  AVe  should  remember  that  roots  are  much  more  watery  than 
silage  and  that  100  lbs.  of  roots  are  therefore  worth  correspondingly 
less  than  100  lbs.  of  corn  silage.  Trials  with  fattening  lambs  show 
100  lbs.  of  corn  silage  is  equal  to  150  lbs.  of  roots  in  feeding  value. 

The  mangel. — The  mangel,  or  mangel  wurzel,  is  the  most  watery  of 
roots,  containing  but  9.4  per  ct.  dry  matter.  Yet,  due  to  its  enor- 
mous yield — 20  to  30  tons  per  acre  on  good  soil  and  sometimes  more 
— it  produces  a  large  amount  of  dry  matter  per  acre.  Because  it 
stands  well  out  of  the  ground,  this  root  is  much  more  easily  culti- 
vated and  harvested  than  the  sugar  beet  and  it  keeps  better  in  winter. 
Mangels  are  useful  for  all  farm  animals,  except  possibly  horses. 
However,  if  fed  to  rams  or  wethers  for  long  periods,  both  mangels 
and  sugar  beets  produce  dangerous  calculi,  or  stones,  in  the  urinary 
organs.  Mangels  should  not  be  fed  until  after  storage  for  a  few 
weeks,  as  freshly  harvested  roots  may  cause  scouring.  Half-sugar 
mangels,  crosses  between  sugar  beets  and  mangels,  are  richer  in  dry 
matter  than  mangels. 

Sugar  beet. — This  root  has  been  so  developed  for  sugar  production 
that  some  strains  now  contain  16  per  ct.  or  more  of  sugar.  The  yield 
is  smaller  than  that  of  mangels,  but,  due  to  the  higher  sugar  content, 
sugar  beets  generall}^  produce  as  much  dry  matter  per  acre.  They 
demand  more  labor  in  cultivating  and  harvesting  than  mangels,  as 
they  set  deep  in  the  ground.  They  are  well-liked  by  stock  and  are 
often  fed  to  dairy  cows  on  test. 

Where  beets  are  grown  for  sugar  factories,  the  cull  beets  and  the 
tops  and  leaves  should  be  fed  to  stock.  The  tops  and  leaves  may  be 
fed  fresh  or  they  may  be  ensiled,  either  alone  or  with  an  equal  weight 
of  dry  corn  fodder,  water  being  added  in  the  latter  case  so  that  the 
mass  will  pack  well. 

Rutabaga. — The  rutabaga,  or  swede,,  extensively  grown  in  Great 


ROOTS  AND  TUBERS 


195 


Britain  and  Canada,  ranks  next  to  the  mangel  in  ease  of  cultivation, 
and  sheep  prefer  it  to  all  other  roots.  Like  other  turnips,  rutabagas 
may  taint  the  milk  of  cows,  and  should  therefore  be  fed  immediately 
after  milking.  , 

Turnip. — The  turnip  is  more  watery  than  the  rutabaga  and  does 
not  keep  so  well.  Maturing  early,  turnips  are  used  chiefly  for  early 
fall  feeding,  and  often  yield  large  crops,  even  when  sown  as  a  catch 
crop  and  without  cultivation.  Tho  used  mainly  for  sheep,  they  can 
also  be  fed  to  cattle. 


Fig.  55. — Sugar  Beets  in  a  Western  Irrigated  District 

While  but  relatively  few  acres  of  sugar  beets  are  grown  for  stock  feeding  in 
tliis  country,  the  raising  of  sugar  beets  for  the  beet  sugar  factories  is  an  im])or- 
tant  industry  in  certain  sections,  especially  in  some  of  the  irrigated  districts  of 
the  West.      (From  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service.) 

Carrot. — Under  favorable  conditions  stock  carrots  yield  heavily. 
They  are  relished  by  horses,  but  should  be  fed  sparingly  to  hard- 
worked  or  driving  horses.  They  are  also  useful  for  other  stock,  espe- 
cially dairy  cows. 

Parsnip, — Parsnips,  the  favorite  root  with  dairy  farmers  on  the 
islands  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  contain  about  as  much  dry  matter  as 
sugar  beets.  They  are  little  grown  in  this  country,  on  account  of  the 
low  yield  and  the  difficulty  of  harvesting. 

Potato. — In   Europe  heavy-yielding  varieties  of   potatoes   are  ex- 


196 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


tensively  grown  for  stock,  but  in  this  country  potatoes  are  not  usually 
fed  to  stock,  unless  low  in  price  or  too  small  for  marketing.  They 
are  fed  chiefly  to  pigs,  but  can  also  be  given  in  limited  amounts  to 
cattle,  sheep,  and*  horses  as  a  partial  substitute  for  grain.  For  pigs 
they  should  be  steamed  or  boiled.  The  heavy  feeding  of  raw  potatoes 
is  not  advisable  as  it  induces  scouring.  The  bitter  tasting  water  in 
which  potatoes  are  cooked  should  be  thrown  away,  likewise  all  unripe 
tubers  and  the  sprouts,  which  nmy  contain  considerable  solanin,  a 
poison.     German  experience  shows  that  half  the  dry  matter  in  rations 


Fig.  56. — Sweet  Potatoes  after  the  Vines  Have  Nearly  Covered 
THE  Ground 

Sweet  potatoes  are  one  of  the  best  root  crops  for  pigs  for  fall  and  early  winter 
feeding  in  tlie  Soiitli.  and  may  also  be  fed  to  cattle  or  horses.  (From  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture.) 


for  fattening  cattle  and  sheep,  and  one-fourth  in  those  for  horses, 
may  be  furnished  in  potatoes.  Feeding  over  35  lbs.  per  head  daily 
to  dairy  cows  injures  the  quality  of  the  butter. 

Jerusalem  artichoke. — The  tubers  of  this  hardy  perennial,  which 
resemble  the  potato  in  composition,  are  sometimes  grown  for  stock. 
'The  tubers  live  over  winter  in  the  ground  and  enough  are  usually  left 
to  make  the  next  crop.  They  may  be  harvested  like  potatoes,  or  pigs 
may  be  turned  in  to  gather  the  crop,  being  fed  grain  in  addition. 


ROOTS  AND  TUBERS  197 

Tho  the  artichoke  has  been  highly  praised,  nowhere  in  this  country 
does  it  seem  to  be  grown  continuously — a  significant  fact. 

Sweet  potato. — This  southern  crop,  which  may  be  grown  as  far 
north  as  New  Jersey  and  Illinois,  serves  chiefly  for  human  food,  but 
is  also  fed  to  stock,  especially  pigs,  which  do  their  own  harvesting. 
The  crop  is  especially  suited  to  sandy  land.  Tho  the  average  yield 
is  90  bushels  per  acre,  some  farmers  raise  200.  Sweet  potatoes  are  one 
of  the  best  root  crops  for  pigs  for  fall  and  early  winter  grazing,  and 
may  also  be  fed  to  cattle  or  substituted  for  half  the  corn  in  rations  for 
work  horses.  The  vines,  tho  difficult  to  gather,  are  often  fed  in  the 
green  state. 

Chufa. — The  chufa  sedge,  frequently  a  weed  on  southern  farms, 
produces  small,  chaffy  tubers  that  are  relished  by  pigs,  which  are 
turned  in  to  harvest  the  crop.  They  are  low  in  digestible  protein  and 
should  be  supplemented  by  protein-rich  feeds.  In  one  trial  a  good 
crop  of  chufas  produced  592  lbs.  of  pork  per  acre,  after  allowing  for 
the  other  feed  consumed  by  the  pigs. 

Cassava. — The  cassava,  a  bushy  plant  growing  from  4  to  10  feet 
high,  yields  fleshy  roots,  like  those  of  the  sweet  potato.  Tropical 
varieties  carry  much  prussic  acid  and  must  be  heated  before  feeding, 
but  those  grown  in  this  country  are  not  poisonous.  The  culture  of 
cassava  in  the  United  States  has  declined  in  recent  years,  due  to  the 
fact  that  sweet  potatoes  give  larger  yields  at  less  expense. 

II.    jMiscellaxeous  Succulent  Feeds 

Rape. — Dwarf  Essex  rape,  a  member  of  the  turnip  and  cabbage 
family,  now  widely  grown  thruout  the  United  States,  stores  its  nutri- 
ment in  the  numerous  leaves  and  stems.  Bird  seed  rape  is  worthless 
for  forage.  AVhile  rape  may  be  used  for  soiling,  it  is  best  to  let  stock 
harvest  the  crop.  The  plants  should  never  be  grazed  so  closely  that 
only  the  bare  stalks  remain,  or  the  yield  of  new  leaves  will  be  reduced. 

The  seed,  which  is  inexpensive,  may  be  sown  from  early  spring  to 
August  in  the  North  and  even  later  in  the  South,  either  broadcast  or 
in  drills  and  cultivated.  It  may  also  be  sown  in  corn  previous  to  the 
last  cultivation.  In  6  to  12  weeks  after  seeding  the  crop  is  large 
enough  for  use.  As  it  endures  quite  severe  frosts,  rape  is  excellent 
for  late  autumn  feed. 

Rape  ranks  high  as  a  pasture  crop  for  sheep  and  pigs,  for  which  it 
is  chiefly  used.  To  avoid  tainting  the  milk  of  dairy  cows,  it  should 
be  fed  or  grazed  only  directly  after  milking.  Cattle  having  the  run 
of  a  rape  field  in  the  fall  will  go  into  winter  quarters  in  high  condi- 
tion.    Access  to  clover  or  bluegrass  pasture  when  on  rape  is  advan- 


198  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

tageous  to  stock,  especially  cattle  and  sheep,  as  it  reduces  the  danger 
from  bloat.  Animals  on  rape  should  be  freely  supplied  with  salt,  as 
this  tends  to  check  any  undue  laxative  effect. 

Cabbage. — Cabbage  is  little  grown  for  stock  feeding  in  this  coun- 
try, because  of  the  labor  required  in  its  cultivation.  It  is  sometimes 
fed  to  milch  cows,  and  is  a  favorite  with  shepherds  when  preparing 
stock  for  exhibition. 

Kohlrabi. — Tho  yielding  less  than  the  rutabaga,  kohlrabi,  another 
member  of  the  cabbage  family,  can  be  grown  wherever  the  former 
thrives.  Since  the  thickened,  turnip-like  stem  stands  well  above 
ground,  it  is  readily  pastured  by  sheep.  Kohlrabi  has  not  been  known 
to  taint  the  milk,  when  fed  to  dairy  cows. 

Kale. — This  cabbage-like  plant,  which  does  not  form  heads,  is  grown 
extensively  in  AVashington  and  Oregon,  where  it  is  considered  the 
best  soiling  crop  for  dairy  cows.  Yields  of  35  to  45  tons  and  even 
more  are  secured  on  rich  soil.  In  the  mild  climate  of  that  section 
kale  is  fed  from  October  to  April,  as  it  endures  frost.  Unless  fed 
after  milking  it  may  taint  the  milk  of  cows.  Kale  is  also  excellent 
for  sheep  and  swine. 

Pumpkin,  squash,  and  melon. — Pumpkins  are  often  planted  in 
corn  fields  and  the  fruits  used  as  relishes  for  stock.  For  dairy  cows 
2.5  tons  of  pumpkins,  including  seeds,  are  equal  to  1  ton  of  corn 
silage.  .  Tho  often  cooked  for  pigs,  raw  pumpkins  give  just  as  good 
results.  The  seeds  of  pumpkins,  sometimes  removed  thru  a  mistaken 
idea  that  they  are  harmful,  are  full  of  nutriment  and  should  not  be 
wasted.  With  pigs,  they  act  as  a  vermifuge  and  put  the  digestive  or- 
gans in  good  condition.  As  the  seeds  are  rich  in  protein  and  oil,  eat- 
ing an  excess  may  cause  digestive  disturbances.  Squashes  and 
melons,  especially  citrons,  are  also  fed  to  stock. 

Apples  and  other  fruits. — Windfall  apples,  pears,  peaches,  plums, 
oranges,  figs,  etc.,  may  often  be  fed  advantageously  to  stock,  and  with 
an  unprofitable  fruit  market  even  sound  fruit  may  be  thus  utilized. 
The  chief  nutrients  of  fruits  are  the  sugars,  and,  since  they  are  all 
low  in  protein,  they  should  be  fed  with  protein-rich  feeds.  For  dairy 
cows  apples  have  40  per  ct.  of  the  value  of  corn  silage,  while  apple 
pomace  is  almost  equal  to  it.  When  fed  with  shorts  and  skim  milk 
to  pigs,  100  lbs.  of  apples  have  equalled  from  9  to  15  lbs.  of  concen- 
trates.^ 

Sagebrush,  saltbush,  and  the  greasewoods. — These  plants  of  the 
desert  flourish  on  the  western  plains  where  drought,  alkali,  and  com- 
mon salt  shut  out  most  of  the  ordinary  forage  crops.  On  many  ranges 
they  furnish  much  of  the  feed  consumed  by  stock.     The  Australian 

lUtah  Bui.  101. 


ROOTS  AND  TUBERS 


199 


saltbiish,  introduced  into  California  and  Arizona,  will  produce  15  to 
20  tons  of  green  forage  per  acre  under  favorable  conditions,  or  3  to  5 
tons  of  coarse  hay  which  has  about  the  same  digestibility  as  oat 
hay. 

Cacti.— During  periods  of  drought  the  cacti,  especially  prickly 
pears,  are  a  boon  to  stockmen  of  the  arid  western  regions.  Because 
of  their  peculiar  structure  and  habits,  cacti  can  survive  long  droughts, 
tho  they  make  little  growth  at  such  times.  Prickly  pear  cacti  may  be 
fed  where  they  stand  by  first  singeing  otf  the  spines  with  a  gasoline 


Fig.  57. — Singeing  Prickly  Pear  with  a  Gasoline  Torch 

After  the  spines  liave  been  singed  off  cattle  can  feed  on  prickly  pear  without 
harm.  Another  method  is  to  cut  the  cacti  and  run  them  thru  machines  which 
chop  them,  rendering  the  spines  comparatively  harmless.  (From  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.) 

torch,  or  they  may  be  gathered  and  run  thru  machines  which  chop 
them  in  such  a  manner  that  the  spines  are  comparatively  harmless. 
Cacti  grow  but  slowly  on  the  range,  and  can  usually  be  harvested  but 
once  in  5  years,  even  under  favorable  conditions. 

Prickly  pear  cacti  contain  about  16.5  per  ct.  dry  matter,  being  less 
watery  than  roots,  and  cane  cacti  contain  somewhat  more  dry  matter. 
Since  they  are  low  in  protein,  all  the  cacti  should  be  fed  with  a  pro- 
tein-rich concentrate  or  roughage.  Cacti  alone  do  not  maintain  stock. 
Tho  desert  cattle  sometimes  subsist  on  them  for  3  months  of  the  year, 


200  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

they  become  very  emaciated.  Fed  in  large  amounts  with  no  dry  feed 
cacti  tend  to  produce  scours. 

Spineless  cacti,  long  known,  but  of  late  exploited  as  a  novelty,  have 
only  limited  usefulness  for  stock  feeding,  both  because  they  do  not 
survive  where  the  temperature  falls  below  20°  F.,  and  because  on  the 
open  range  cattle  readily  destroy  them.  IMoreover,  in  the  West,  they 
must  be  enclosed  bj^  rabbit-proof  fences. 

The  chief  importance  of  cacti  will  undoubtedly  be  to  furnish  emer- 
gency forage  for  stock  in  the  semi-arid  plains  regions.  For  this  pur- 
pose plantations  of  the  spiny  cacti  may  be  established  on  the  open 
range,  where  they  will  be  able  to  grow  and  hold  their  own  until  drawn 
upon  in  time  of  serious  drought,  for  cattle  will  not  graze  them  when 
other  feed  is  reasonably  abundant.  All  cacti  have  little  value  in 
humid  regions. 

III.    Poisonous  Plants 

Only  the  briefest  mention  can  be  made  of  the  leading  plants  poison- 
ous to  stock.'  One  in  trouble  should  send  suspected  specimens  to  the 
experiment  station  of  his  state,  or  to  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

Plants  carrying  prussic  acid. — Prussic  acid,  a  deadly  poison,  is 
found  in  many  plants.  The  leaves  of  the  wild  cherry,  especially 
when  wilted,  are  particularly  fatal  to  cattle.  AVhen  the  sorghums, 
both  sweet  and  grain  varieties,  are  stunted  by  drought,  enough  prus- 
sic acid  ma}^  develop  to  kill  cattle  grazing  on  them.  Caution  should 
be  used  in  feeding  stunted  or  second-growth  sorghum,  kafir,  Johnson- 
grass,  etc.  Wilted  or  cured  sorghum  and  sorghum  silage  are  not 
poisonous. 

Ergot. — The  seeds  of  rye  and  many  of  the  grasses  are  sometimes 
attacked  by  a  fungus  which  produces  poisonous  black  masses  known 
as  ergot.  Atfected  animals  should  have  their  feed  changed  to  remove 
the  cause,  and  be  warmly  housed  and  liberally  fed. 

Forage  poisoning. — During  recent  j^ears  serious  losses  of  stock 
have  occurred  from  forage  poisoning,  or  "blind  staggers,"  caused  by 
eating  moldy  feed  or  drinking  water  that  has  passed  thru  moldy 
vegetation.  Horses  and  mules  succumb  most  easily  but  cattle  are  also 
affected.  The  mortality  is  high  in  well-developed  cases;  therefore, 
animals  showing  the  slightest  symptoms  should  have  their  feed 
changed.  If  moldy  feed  must  be  given,  it  should  be  fed  sparingly 
and  mixed  with  other  feeds  of  good  quality. 

Cornstalk  disease. — All  efforts  to  determine  the  cause  of  a  mj'steri- 
ous  and  fatal  ailment,  called  corn-stalk  disease,  which  attacks  cattle 
turned  into  stalk  fields  during  fall  and  winter  in  the  West,  have 


ROOTS  AND  TUBERS  201 

failed.  Danger  can  be  avoided  by  cutting  and  shocking  the  corn  and 
feeding  the  fodder  or  the  stover  after  husking. 

Corn  smut.— Since  cows  have  been  fed  as  much  as  10  lbs.  of  corn 
smut  daily  for  considerable  periods  without  harm,  it  is  reasonable  to 
hold  that  it  is  not  generally  dangerous  to  cattle. 

Loco  poisoning. — In  Colorado  alone  a  million  dollars  has  been  lost 
annually  thru  "loco"  poisoning,  brought  on  by  eating  various  plants, 
mostly  legumes,  which  in  certain  regions  may  contain  barium  salts. 
The  trouble  is  most  prevalent  in  the  spring,  when  the  emaciated  range 
animals  are  forced  because  of  scanty  forage  to  eat  plants  they  would 
ordinarily  reject. 

Castor  beans. — Castor  beans  and  castor  pomace  contain  a  deadly 
poison,  which  may  be  destroyed  by  exposing  the  castor  oil  cake  or  the 
seeds  to  the  air  for  5  to  6  days,  or  by  cooking  them  for  2  hours. 

Miscellaneous  poisonous  plants. — The  common  horsetail,  water  hem- 
lock, poison  hemlock,  death  camas,  several  species  of  larkspur,  cockle 
bur,  woody  aster,  and  many  other  plants  are  more  or  less  poisonous 
to  stock.  However,  animals  seldom  eat  poisonous  plants  unless  forced 
to  do  so  by  hunger.  When  grazing  is  short,  stock  should  be  kept  away 
from  areas  definitely  known  to  be  infested  with  sucli  plants. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  tlie  uses  of  roots  for  stock  feeding. 

2.  Compare  the  value  and  economy  of  roots  and  corn  silage. 

3.  Name  the  five  most  important  root  crops  for  tlie  Nortli  and  discuss  thoir 
value. 

4.  Of  what  value  are  potatoes  for  stock? 

5.  Name  three  root  crops  grown  only  in  the  South  and  state  tiieir  merits. 
G.  State  tlie  value  and  uses  of  rape  for  stock. 

7.  Discuss  tlie  value  of  three  otlier  memhers  of  the  cabbage  family. 

8.  What  are  the  uses  of  sagebrush,  saltbush,  the  greasewoods,  and  the  cacti? 

9.  Name  some  of  the  plants  poisonous  to  stock. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

SILAGE— SOILAGE 

I,    Silage  and  the  Silo 

The  preservation  of  green  forage  by  placing  it  in  pits  or  heaps  and 
covering  with  earth  has  long  been  practiced  in  Europe.  However, 
silos — special  structures  built  mainly  above  ground  to  contain  such 
material — have  been  in  use  only  during  the  past  40  years.  From 
1879,  when  the  first  silo  was  built  in  this  country,  the  use  of  silage  has 
increased  rapidly,  until  now  it  is  a  factor  of  vast  importance  in  Amer- 
ican agriculture. 

How  ensiling  preserves  forage. — When  green  forage  is  packed 
firmly  in  a  chamber  with  air-tight  walls,  such  as  a  silo,  fermentations 
take  place,  caused  both  by  the  enzymes  contained  in  the  plant  cells  and 
by  bacteria  and  yeasts  carried  into  the  silo  on  the  forage.  During  these 
fermentations  much  of  the  sugar  in  the  forage  is  broken  down  into 
organic  acids,  chiefly  lactic  acid  (the  acid  in  sour  milk)  and  acetic  acid 
(the  acid  in  vinegar).  In  these  changes  oxygen  is  taken  up  and  car- 
bon dioxid  (carbonic  acid  gas)  given  off.  At  first  the  oxygen  in  the 
air  which  has  been  entrapped  in  the  ensiled  mass  is  used  up,  but  if 
the  forage  has  been  well  packed,  this  is  soon  exhausted.  The  enzymes 
and  bacteria  then  obtain  the  oxygen  for  these  decompositions  from  the 
oxygen-containing  compounds  in  the  forage — chiefly  the  sugars. 
When  the  sugar  in  the  forage  has  been  changed  into  acids  the  fermen- 
tation is  checked,  for  the  other  carbohydrates  are  attacked  to  only  a 
small  extent.  It  is  due  to  this  that  corn  or  sorghum  makes  less  acid 
silage  when  well  matured  than  if  ensiled  when  the  plants  contain 
more  sugar.  Even  tho  much  sugar  is  present,  the  fermentation  fi- 
nally comes  to  an  end,  for  sufficient  acid  is  produced  to  prevent  both 
the  further  growth  of  the  bacteria  and  yeasts  and  the  action  of  the 
plant  enzymes.  During  the  fermentation  the  temperature  rises  some- 
what, but  rarely  reaches  100°  F.  if  the  mass  has  been  well  tramped  to 
exhaust  the  air. 

The  acid  in  silage  prevents  the  growth  of  undesirable  putrefying 
bacteria,  such  as  cause  the  decaying  of  meat.  The  foul-smelling  silage 
often  obtained  from  alfalfa,  clover,  and  other  legumes  is  largely  due 
to  the  fact  that  not  enough  sugar  is  present  in  such  plants  to  form 
sufficient  acid  to  check  the  growth  of  these  putrefying  bacteria. 

202 


SILAGE— SOILAGE 


203 


After  a  few  days  the  silage-making  processes  cease,  and  no  appre- 
ciable changes  will  take  place  so  long  as  the  air  is  excluded.  In- 
stances are  on  record  where  silage  made  12  to  14  years  before  has  been 
found  to  be  of  excellent  quality.  Tho  the  conversion  of  sugar  into 
acids  is  the  chief  change  in  good  silage,  a  considerable  part  of  the 
protein  is  also  broken  down  into  amino  acids.  Since  this  splitting  of 
the  protein  into  simpler  compounds  is  similar  to  digestion  in  the  ani- 
mal, it  probably  does  not  lessen  the  nutritive  value. 


Fig.  58. 


-Silos  have  Revolutionized  Stock  Feeding  in  iMany 
Districts 


The  silo  provides  high-quality  succulent  feed  for  any  season  of  the  year,  with  a 
low  expense  for  labor  and  a  minimum  wastage  of  nutrients. 


Advantages  of  silage. — The  widespread  use  of  the  silo  for  the 
preservation  of  forage  is  easily  explained  when  we  consider  the  ad- 
vantages this  system  offers,  the  more  important  of  which  are : 

1.  At  a  low  expense  silage  furnishes  high-quality  succulent  feed 
for  any  desired  season  of  the  year.  The  cost  of  silage  per  ton  will 
vary  widely,  depending  on  the  price  of  labor,  the  yield  of  forage  per 
acre,  and  the  rent  of  the  land.  However,  when  average  yields  are 
secured  the  cost  of  corn  silage  should  not  be  over  $3.50  to  $4.00  per 


204  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABKIDGED 

ton,  including  land  rental,  cost  of  manure  or  fertilizers,  seed,  labor 
and  other  expenses  in  growing  and  harvesting  the  crop,  as  well  as  in- 
terest and  depreciation  on  machinery.  For  winter  feeding,  silage  is 
far  cheaper  than  roots  and  as  efficient,  except  possibly  in  the  case  of 
animals  being  fitted  for  shows  and  milch  cows  on  forced  test.  In 
summer  silage  furnishes  succulent  feed  with,  less  bother  and  expense 
than  do  soiling  crops. 

2.  When  crops  are  properly  ensiled,  less  of  the  nutrients  are  wasted 
thru  the  fermentations  which  take  place  than  are  lost  when  the  forage 
is  cured  as  hay  or  dry  fodder. 

3.  Silage,  even  from  plants  with  coarse  stalks,  such  as  corn  and  the 
sorghums,  is  eaten  practically  without  waste.  On  the  other  hand, 
from  20  to  35  per  ct.  of  dry  corn  fodder,  even  if  of  good  quality,  is 
usually  wasted.  The  use  of  silage  thus  permits  the  keeping  of  more 
stock  on  a  given  area  of  land. 

4.  Crops  may  be  ensiled  when  the  weather  is  unfavorable  for  curing 
them  into  dry  fodder.  In  some  sections  of  the  South  the  corn  crop 
can  not  be  preserved  satisfactorily  as  grain  and  stover  on  account  of 
the  dampness  and  also  because  rodents  and  weevils  ruin  the  stored 
grain.     Ensiling  the  crop  overcomes  both  difficulties. 

5.  Weedy  crops,  which  make  poor  hay,  may  make  silage  of  good 
quality,  the  ensiling  process  killing  practically  all  weed  seeds. 

6.  The  product  from  a  given  area  can  be  stored  in  less  space  as 
silage  than  as  dry  forage.  A  cubic  foot  of  hay  in  the  mow,  weighing 
about  5  lbs.,  contains  approximately  4.3  lbs.  of  drj^  matter.  An  aver- 
age cubic  foot  of  corn  silage  from  a  30-foot  silo,  weighing  about  39.6 
lbs.,  will  contain  10.4  lbs.  dry  matter,  or  nearly  2.5  times  as  much. 

7.  Ensiling  the  corn  crop  clears  the  land  early  so  it  ma}^  be  prepared 
for  another  crop. 

Crops  for  the  silo. — The  suitability  of  the  leading  crops  for  silage 
has  been  discussed  in  the  preceding  chapters.  Indian  corn  is  the  best 
silage  plant,  sorghos  and  the  grain  sorghums  ranking  next  in  value 
and  importance.  Green  cereals  are  fairly  satisfactory  for  silage,  if 
ensiled  before  the  stems  become  woody,  and  if  the  cut  forage  is  well 
tramped  to  force  the  air  out  of  the  hollow  stems. 

The  legumes  have  proved  disappointing  for  silage.  Better  results 
have  been  secured  with  alfalfa  and  clover  when  they  are  ensiled  with 
other  plants  which  carry  more  sugar,  such  as  green  rye,  wheat,  corn, 
or  sorghum.  Whenever  these  legumes  can  be  cured  into  satisfactory 
hay,  there  is  little  need  of  ensiling  them,  for  more  reliable  silage  crops^ 
may  usually  be  gro^A-n.  When  ensiled  with  corn  or  the  sorghums, 
cowpeas  and  soybeans  produce  silage  of  high  quality,  rich  in  protein. 
The  refuse  of  pea  canneries  makes  a  silage  much  relished  by  stock. 


SILAGE— SOILAGE  205 

Such  substances  as  beet  pulp,  beet  tops,  apple  pomace,  the  waste 
from  sweet  corn  canneries,  and  sorghum  bagasse  may  be  successfully 
preserved  in  silos,  or  placed  in  heaps  and  covered  with  earth,  or  even 
massed  in  large  heaps  without  covering,  in  which  case  the  outside  por- 
tion on  decaying  forms  a  preserving  crust.  Weeds  and  other  waste 
vegetation  may  sometimes  be  advantageously  ensiled.  Cabbage,  rape, 
and  turnips  make  unsatisfactory  silage,  ill-smelling  and  watery. 

Silage  on  the  stock  farm.— Over  a  large  part  of  the  United  States 
the  use  of  silage  is  a  most  important  means  of  lowering  the  cost  of 
producing  milk  and  meat.  Apart  from  the  nutrients  it  contains,  this 
succulent  feed  aids  in  keeping  stock  in  thrifty  condition  so  that  they 
will  make  the  most  from  their  feed.  Since  it  furnishes  at  any  time  of 
the  year  a  uniform  supply  of  succulent  feed  nearly  equal  in  palatability 
and  nutritive  effect  to  the  pasturage  of  early  summer,  silage  is  unex- 
celled for  dairy  cows,  beef  cattle,  and  sheep.  With  an  abundance  of 
silage  and  legume  hay  the  amount  of  concentrates  which  must  be  pur- 
chased or  grown  may  be  greatly  reduced.  Silage  is  especially  valuable 
for  breeding  stock  and  young  animals,  keeping  them  in  better  condition 
than  if  wintered  on  dry  forage  alone.  On  too  many  farms  stock  cattle 
barely  hold  their  own  during  winter.  This  means  that  for  half  of  each 
year  all  the  feed  consumed  goes  for  body  maintenance,  returning 
nothing  to  the  owner,  and  serving  only  to  carry  the  animals  over  to 
pasture  time,  when  they  once  more  may  gain  in  weight  and  really 
increase  in  value.  By  the  use  of  corn  silage,  combined  with  other 
cheap  roughages,  young  cattle  may  gain  steadily  all  winter  at  small 
cost,  and  by  spring  they  will  be  in  condition  to  make  the  largest  pos- 
sible gains  from  pasture.  Silage  is  a  valuable  succulence  for  sheep, 
but  must  be  fed  in  moderation  to  ewes  before  lambing  or  weak,  flabby 
lambs  may  result.  Good  silage  may  also  be  used  in  a  limited  way  with 
idle  horses  and  those  not  hard  worked  in  winter,  especially  brood 
mares  and  colts. 

Spoiled,  moldy  silage  should  always  be  discarded,  and  special  care 
taken  to  feed  no  such  material  to  sheep  or  horses,  which  are  much  more 
easily  affected  by  it  than  cattle.  Silage  which  is  very  sour  is  apt  to 
cause  digestive  disturbances  with  sheep.  For  all  animals  only  as  much 
silage  should  be  supplied  as  will  be  cleaned  up  at  each  feeding.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  remove  any  waste,  for  it  spoils  in  a  short  time  on 
exposure  to  the  air.     Frozen  silage  must  be  thawed  before  feeding. 

The  amount  of  silage  commonly  fed  per  head  daily  to  the  various 
classes  of  stock  is  about  as  follows: 

Dairy  cows,  30  to  50  lbs.  for  those  in  milk,  with  somewhat  less  for 
dry  cows ;  dairy  heifers,  12  to  20  lbs. ;  beef  breeding  cows,  30  to  50  lbs. ; 
fattening  2-year-old  steers,  25  to  30  lbs.  at  the  beginning  of  the  fat- 


206  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

teniug  period,  the  allowance  decreasing  as  they  fatten  until  only  10  to 
15  lbs.  is  fed;  brood  mares  and  idle  horses,  15  to  30  lbs.;  breeding 
ewes,  2  lbs.  (sometimes  as  much  as  3  to  4  lbs.  is  safely  fed)  ;  fattening 
lambs.  1.5  to  3  lbs. 

Summer  silage. — Many  farmers  who  fully  appreciate  the  value  of 
silage  for  winter  feeding  do  not  realize  its  value  for  supplementing 
dried-up  pastures  in  the  summer,  or  as  a  partial  substitute  for  pas- 
turage on  high-priced  land  where  all  the  stock  possible  must  be  kept 
per  acre.  In  a  3-3'ear  comparison  of  soilage  crops  and  corn  silage  as 
.summer  supplements  to  pasture  for  dairy  cows,  at  the  Wisconsin 
Station,^  silage  proved  fullj-  as  efficient  in  producing  milk  and  butter 
fat  as  soilage,  and  was  far  cheaper  and  more  convenient.  To  provide  a 
succession  of  green  feed  by  means  of  soiling  crops,  it  is  necessary  to  fit 
and  plant  comparatively  small  areas  to  various  crops  at  different  times. 
As  the  cut  soilage  will  quickly  heat  and  become  unpalatable  in  warm 
weather  if  placed  in  piles,  a  supply  must  be  harvested  each  day,  or  at 
least  every  two  or  three  da^'S.  Harvesting  in  small  quantities  and  in 
all  sorts  of  weather  is  inconvenient  and  expensive,  and  the  work  must 
be  done  at  the  busiest  season  of  the  year.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
corn  or  the  sorghums  are  grown  for  silage  the  large  fields  are  fitted, 
planted,  cultivated,  and  harvested  with  labor  saving  machinery  at 
minimum  expense,  and  feeding  the  silage  takes  but  a  few  minutes  daily. 

Corn  and  sorghum  return  greater  yields  of  nutrients  than  many  of 
the  crops  it  is  necessary  to  include  in  a  soiling  system.  Silage  fur- 
nishes feed  of  uniformly  high  quality  thruout  the  season,  a  goal  which 
is  difficult  to  reach  by  soiling,  for  one  crop  is  often  exhausted  or  too 
mature  before  the  next  is  in  prime  condition  for  feeding.  The  years 
when  drought  is  severe  and  pastures  unusually  short  are  the  veiy  times 
when  soiling  crops  will  be  scant  or  may  even  fail.  By  means  of  the 
silo,  the  crop  may  be  carried  over  from  one  year  to  the  next,  thus  pro- 
viding insurance  against  drought.  In  summer  feeding,  at  least  two 
inches  of  silage  and  preferably  more  should  be  removed  from  the  sur- 
face each  day,  or  the  exposed  material  will  decay. 

Filling  the  silo. — Especially  with  such  coarse  material  as  corn  or 
sorghum  forage,  silage  keeps  much  better  when  cut  into  short  lengths 
and  is  therefore  usually  run  thru  a  silage  cutter.  The  cut  material  is 
also  easier  to  remove  from  the  silo.  "When  filling  the  silo  the  inpouring 
material  should  be  thoroly  mixed  and  evenly  spread,  so  it  will  settle 
uniformly.  The  material  should  be  especially  well  tramped  near  the 
wall  and  kept  higher  than  at  the  center,  as  the  friction  at  the  wall  re- 
tards the  settling.  If  the  forage  is  too  dry  to  pack  well,  w^ater  should 
be  added  to  the  mass  in  the  silo  or  to  the  cut  forage  as  it  passes  thru  the 

1  WoU,  Humphrey,  and  Oosterliuis,  Wis.  Bui.  235, 


SILAGE— SOILAGE  207 

blower.  The  forage  will  settle  considerably  after  the  silo  is  filled,  and 
more  may  then  be  put  in,  any  spoiled  surface  material  being  first 
removed.  If  feeding  is  not  to  begin  immediately,  the  surface  should 
be  wet  down  thoroly  and  tramped  well  several  times  the  first  week, 
when  the  rotting  forage  will  fonn  a  layer  on  top  that  protects  the  rest. 
To  lessen  the  waste,  it  is  well  to  remove  the  ears  from  the  last  few  loads 
of  forage  and  cover  the  top  witli  cheap  refuse  such  as  straw  or  weeds, 
wet  with  water.  "When  feeding  begins,  all  spoiled  silage  should  be 
discarded. 

On  going  into  the  silo  after  an  intermission  in  filling,  one  should 
always  beware  of  the  danger  from  carbon  dioxid.  This  may  accumu- 
late in  sufficient  quantities  to  prove  fatal.  If  a  lighted  lantern  or 
candle  lowered  into  the  silo  continues  to  burn,  it  is  safe,  but  if  the 
light  goes  out  it  means  death  to  one  entering.  Opening  a  door  low 
down  in  the  silo  or  pouring  in  a  lot  of  fresh  cut  forage  will  soon  drive 
out  the  deadly  gas. 

Types  of  silos. — Silos  may  be  constructed  of  wood,  solid  concrete, 
concrete  blocks,  brick,  stone,  glazed  tile,  or  sheet  steel.  In  the  semi- 
arid  regions  pit  silos,  preferably  with  cement  lining  and  curb,  are 
extensively  used,  but  these  are  impracticable  in  humid  climates.  In 
the  southwestern  states  silos  are  sometimes  built  of  adobe,  reinforced 
with  wire  and  plastered  with  cement.  The  choice  between  the  various 
types  of  construction,  all  of  which  make  good  silos  when  well-built, 
will  depend  upon  local  conditions.  This  work  presents  only  the  pri- 
mary principles  relating  to  silo  construction,  advising  those  interested 
to  secure  from  the  state  experiment  stations  or  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  instructions  concerning  materials  and  man- 
ner of  construction  suited  to  their  locality. 

Requisites  of  a  good  silo. — The  satisfactory  silo  meets  the  following 
conditions:  1.  Air-tight  walls:  The  silo  w^alls  must  be  air-tight  and 
the  doors  fit  snugly,  for  if  air  gains  entrance  the  fermentations  will 
continue  and  molds  will  grow,  spoiling  the  silage. 

2.  Cylindrical  shape.  In  the  early  silos,  which  were  rectangular,  it 
was  exceedingly  difficult  to  pack  the  mass  in  the  corners  so  that  it 
would  not  spoil.  The  cylindrical  silo  has  no  comers,  the  sides  are 
strong  and  unyielding,  and  it  provides  the  largest  possible  cubic 
capacity  for  a  given  amount  of  building  material. 

3.  Smooth,  perpendicular,  strong  iralls.  Unless  the  walls  of  the  silo 
are  smooth  and  perpendicular,  cavities  will  form  along  the  walls  as 
the  mass  settles  and  the  adjacent  silage  will  spoil.  The  walls  must  be 
strong  and  rigid,  for  while  the  silage  is  settling  a  great  outward  pres- 
sure is  developed. 

4.  Depth.    By  making  the  silo  deep  the  great  pressure  compacts  all 


208 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


but  the  uppermost  layers  so  that  the  losses  thru  fermentation  are 
reduced  to  a  minimum.  While  over  30  per  ct.  of  the  dry  matter  may 
be  lost  in  the  layer  of  silage  near  the  surface,  the  loss  in  the  rest  of  the 
silo  should  be  less  than  10  per  ct. 

Capacity  of  the  silo. — The  following  table  -  shows  the  approximate 
capacity  of  cylindrical  silos  for  well-matured  com  silage  two  days  after 
filling.  The  depth  indicated  is  the  actual  depth  of  the  silage,  not  the 
height  of  the  silo  wall.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  have  the  silo  about 
five  feet  higher  than  the  depth  given  to  allow  for  settling.  The  table 
shows,  for  example,  that  a  silo  15  feet  in  diameter,  which  contains 
20  feet  of  silage  after  settling,  will  hold  about  59  tons  of  cut  corn  silage. 

Approximate  capacity  of  cylindrical  silos  in  tons  of  corn  silage 


Inside  diameter  in 

feet 

in  feet 

10 

12 

14 

15 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

20  

26 

38 

51 

59 

67 

85 

105 

127 

151 

177 

21  

28 

40 

55 

63 

72 

91 

112 

135 

161 

189 

22  

30 

43 

59 

67 

77 

97 

120 

145 

172 

202 

23  

32 

46 

62 

72 

82 

103 

128 

154 

184 

216 

24  

34 

49 

67 

76 

•  86 

110 

135 

164 

195 

229 

25  

36 

52 

71 

81 

91 

116 

143 

173 

206 

242 

26  

38 

55 

75 

85 

97 

123 

152 

184 

219 

257 

27  

40 

58 

79 

90 

102 

130 

160 

194 

231 

271 

28  

42 

61 

83 

95 

109 

137 

169 

205 

243 

285 

29  

44 

64 

87 

100 

114 

144 

178 

216 

256 

300 

30  

47 

67 

91 

105 

119 

151 

187 

226 

269 

315 

31  

49 

70 

96 

110 

125 

158 

196 

237 

282 

330 

32  

51 

74 

100 

115 

131 

166 

205 

248 

295 

346 

34  

56 

80 

109 

126 

143 

181 

224 

271 

36  

61 

87 

118 

136 

1.55- 

196 

243 

293 

40  

70 

101 

138 

160 

180 

228 

282 

340 

Proper  size  of  the  silo. — In  determining  the  size  of  silo  to  build, 
the  diameter  should  be  gauged  by  the  amount  of  silage  to  be  fed  daily. 
In  the  cooler  part  of  the  year  at  least  1.5  inches,  and  preferably 
2  inches,  should  be  removed  from  the  entire  surface  each  day  to  keep  it 
from  spoiling,  and  in  summer  somewhat  more.  Knowing  the  number 
of  animals  to  be  fed  and  the  amount  for  each  daily,  one  can  readily 
calculate  how  much  silage  will  be  fed  each  day.  To  remove  two  inches 
from  the  surface  daily  the  silo  should  not  have  a  larger  diameter  than 
shown  in  the  following  table.  For  example,  if  about  1,000  lbs.  of  silage 
is  to  be  fed  daily,  the  diameter  of  the  silo  should  not  be  over  14  feet. 

When  the  diameter  for  the  desired  silo  has  been  determined,  the 
total  amount  of  silage  required  for  any  particular  feeding  period  may 

2  Chiefly  from  King,  Wis.   Bui.   59. 


SILAGE— SOILAGE  209 

be  computed  and  from  this  the  right  dimensions  found  by  referring 
to  the  table  in  the  preceding  article. 

Minimum  amount  of  silage  to  he  fed  daily  from  silos  of  various 
diameters 

Diameter  Minimum  amount      Diameter  Minimum  amount 

of  silo                                                of  silage  of  silo  of  silage 

Lbs.  Lbs. 

10  feet 520  18  feet ■. 1,680 

11  feet 625  20  feet  2,075 

12  feet  745  22  feet  2.510 

1-t  feet  1,015  24  feet 2,085 

16  feet  1,325  26  feet  3,505 

II.     Soilage 

Soilage  means  supplying  forage  fresh  from  the  field  to  animals  in 
confinement.  This  system,  which  had  been  long  practiced  in  Europe, 
was  brought  to  attention  in  this  country  nearly  100  years  ago  thru  the 
essays  of  Josiah  Quincy  on  "The  Soiling  of  Cattle." 

Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  soilage.— Compared  with  allow- 
ing animals  to  gather  their  food  by  grazing,  soiling  has  the  following 
advantages.  (1)  A  larger  yield,  even  of  the  grasses,  is  secured  by 
allowing  the  plants  nearly  to  mature  before  harvesting  than  by  pas- 
turing them.  (2)  With  a  properly  planned  succession  of  soiling 
crops,  an  abundance  of  palatable  feed  may  usually  be  supplied  thru- 
out  the  season,  so  that  the  production  of  the  animals  will  not  decline  if 
pastures  become  parched  in  midsummer.  (3)  None  of  the  forage  is 
wasted  thru  being  tramped  down  by  the  animals  or  fouled  with  manure. 
(4)  Less  fencing  is  required.  ('5)  In  bad  weather  cattle  will  be  more 
comfortable  when  fed  soiling  crops  in  the  stable  than  when  grazing. 
Quincy  reports  that  he  maintained  20  cows  in  stalls,  allowing  exercise 
in  an  open  yard,  on  the  soilage  from  17  acres  of  land,  where  50  acres 
had  been  required  when  the  land  was  pastured.  In  a  trial  by  the 
senior  author  at  the  Wisconsin  Station  ^  1  acre  of  soiling  crops  pro- 
duced as  much  milk  when  fed  to  dairy  cows  as  2.5  acres  of  good  blue- 
grass  pasture. 

The  chief  disadvantages  of  soilage  are  the  greater  expenditure  for 
labor,  seed,  and  fertilizer  in  producing  the  crops  and  for  labor  in 
cutting  and  carrying  them  to  the  animals.  In  warm  weather  soilage 
will  ferment  and  mold  in  a  short  time  if  left  in  piles.  AVhen  but  few 
animals  are  fed,  the  green  forage  may  be  spread  thinly  on  the  barn 
floor,  where  it  will  keep,  but  soilage  thus  handled  dries  out  and  is  less 
palatable.  Where  a  considerable  quantity  is  harvested  at  one  time, 
much  labor  may  be  saved  by  using  the  mower  and  horse  rake.     During 

3  Wis.  Ept.  1885. 


210 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


wet  spells  the  palatability  of  the  soilage  is  reduced,  and  it  is  difficult 
to  harvest  and  cart  the  food  to  the  animals  without  injury  to  the  land. 
On  the  other  hand,  pastures  also  suffer  if  grazed  while  wet. 

The  place  of  soilage  on  American  farms. — It  has  been  shown  pre- 
viously in  this  chapter  that  silage  is  a  more  economical  means  of 
supplying  succulent  feed  in  summer  than  is  soilage.  On  farms  where 
too  few  animals  are  kept  to  prevent  the  molding  of  the  surface  of  the 
silage  as  it  is  fed  off  in  summer,  or  where  a  silo  is  not  available,  soilage 
should  be  provided  to  prevent  the  usual  midsummer  shrinkage  in  milk 


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Fig.  59. — Soilage  Is  Usually  Less  Economical  than  Silage 

Providing  succulent  feed  in  summer  by  a  succession  of  soiling  crops  is  usually 
more  expensive  than  the  use  of  silage,  chiefly  because  it  requires  more  labor. 
(From  Wisconsin   Station.) 

flow  with  cows,  and  in  flesh  with  beef  cattle  or  sheep.  Under  this 
system  animals  may  be  housed  in  darkened  stables  away  from  the  flies 
during  the  heated  portion  of  the  day  and  fed  liberally  with  fresh  cut 
soilage,  being  turned  to  pasture  at  night  for  exercise  and  grazing. 
It  is  also  wise  to  supply  extra  green  forage  in  the  fall,  if  the  pastures 
do  not  furnish  plenty  of  feed. 

Because  of  the  high  price  of  labor  in  this  country,  it  is  not  usually 
economical,  in  regions  where  good  summer  pastures  may  be  provided, 
to  maintain  cattle  in  summer  on  soilage  or  silage  with  no  pasturage. 
On  high-priced  land  where  it  is  desired  to  keep  as  many  animals  as 


SILAGE— SOILAGE  211 

possible  on  a  given  area,  such  a  system  may  be  the  most  profitable. 
In  Europe,  where  labor  is  relatively  cheap  compared  with  land,  a  much 
wider  use  can  economically  be  made  of  soilage  than  in  the  United 
States. 

Crops  for  soilage. — Among  the  crops  well  suited  for  soilage  are  the 
various  legumes,  such  as  alfalfa,  the  clovers,  field  peas,  cowpeas,  and 
soybeans;  the  cereals,  as  rye,  wheat,  barley,  and  oats;  the  smaller 
grasses ;  and  especially  corn — sweet  corn  for  early  feeding  and  field 
corn  later — and  the  sorghums.  The  adaptability  of  all  these  for  soilage 
has  been  discussed  in  the  preceding  chapters. 

Soiling  crops  should  not  be  fed  until  reasonably  mature.  Green, 
immature  plants  are  mostly  water,  and  often  cattle  cannot  consume 
enough  of  them  to  secure  the  needed  nourishment.  Where  quite  green 
crops  must  be  fed,  some  dry  forage  should  be  supplied.  Wherever 
soilage  is  practiced,  a  succession  of  crops  must  be  carefully  planned  so 
that  a  continuous  supply  of  green  forage  of  the  proper  stage  of 
maturity  will  be  available  over  the  period  desired.  It  is  helpful  to 
prepare  a  soiling  chart  which  shows  the  area  of  each  crop  to  be  grown, 
the  date  of  seeding,  the  period  of  feeding,  and  the  estimated  yield. 
Any  such  attempt  will  be  more  or  less  imperfect  at  first,  but  may  l)e 
modified  from  growing  experience  and  close  study  to  meet  the  local 
conditions. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  changes  that  take  place  wlien  green  forage  is  ensiled. 

2.  Give  seven  advantages  of  silage. 

3.  Summarize  the  suitability  of  various  crops  for  silage.  Wliat  ones  are  used 
in  your  locality? 

4.  Discuss  the  importance  of  silage  for  feeding  the  various  classes  of  stock. 

5.  What  are  the  advantages  of  summer  silage  compared  with   soilage  crops? 

6.  Mention  the  points  to  be  observed  in  filling  the  silo. 

7.  What  are  the  requisites  of  a  good  silo? 

8.  A  farmer  wishes  to  provide  corn  silage  for  a  herd  of  15  Holstein  cows,  8 
yearling  heifers.  2  idle  horses,  and  30  breeding  ewes  during  a  winter  feeding 
period  of  6  months.     What  size  of  silo  would  you  recommend? 

9.  Define  soilage  and  state  its  advantages  and  disadvantages. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

MANURIAL  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

Unless  the  plant  food  removed  from  the  soil  by  the  growth  of  crops 
is  returned  in  some  form,  the  land  will  sooner  or  later  be  so  reduced 
in  fertility  that  profitable  crops  eainiot  be  grown.  Already  the  soil  in 
many  once  productive  areas  of  this  country  has  been  so  "mined" 
that  good  crops  are  possible  only  when  commercial  fertilizers  are 
liberally  applied.  In  1913  over  $8,000,000  worth  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizers were  sold  in  the  South  Atlantic  states  alone.  While  the  use  of 
commercial  fertilizers  is  wise  in  some  cases,  in  general  farming  they 
should  be  used  to  supplement  deficiencies  only  after  all  the  fertility  in 
the  feeding  stuffs  fed  to  the  live  stock  has  been  fully  utilized. 

Farm  manure  as  a  fertilizer. — Farm  manure,  like  commercial  fer- 
tilizers, is  valued  on  the  basis  of  the  amount  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  potash  it  contains.  This  is  because  these  are  the  only  plant 
food  constituents  removed  from  the  soil  by  crops  which  need  ordinarily 
be  replaced.  The  necessary  nitrogen  may,  as  we  have  seen,  be 
indirectly  obtained  from  the  air  by  growing  legumes,  but  in  practice 
much  is  purchased  along  with  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 

Not  only  does  farm  manure  supply  plant  food,  but  the  vegetable  or 
organic  matter  it  contains  also  helps  to  increase  the  productivity  of 
the  soil.  As  this  vegetable  matter  gradually  breaks  down,  the  acid 
products  formed  help  dissolve  and  make  available  to  plants  some  of 
the  otherwise  insoluble  plant  food  in  the  soil.  Furthermore,  the  humus 
formed  from  the  organic  matter  of  manure  helps  retain  moisture, 
improves  the  soil  texture,  renders  it  more  resistant  to  wind  action,  and 
favors  chemical  and  bacterial  action  which  make  plant  food  available. 
On  fields  lacking  in  humus  such  crops  as  rye  are  often  grown  and 
turned  under  as  green  manure,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  increasing  the 
humus  content. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  the  fertilizing  constituents  in  farm 
manure  have  as  high  a  value  as  in  such  high-grade  fertilizers  as  tank- 
age, bone  meal,  and  muriate  of  potash.  In  computing  the  fertilizing 
value  of  feeding  stuffs  and  farm  manure,  we  will  therefore  use  the 
average  market  prices  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  in  com- 

212 


MANURIAL  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


213 


mercial  fertilizers  when  bought  in  large  quantities,  i.e.,  nitrogen  18, 
phosphoric  acid  4.5,  and  potash  5  cts.  per  pound.^ 

Fertilizing  constituents  recovered  in  manure.— The  animal  creates 
nothing  of  fertilizing  value,  for  it  voids  only  that  which  it  has  eaten 
or  drunk.  Part  of  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  of  the 
food  may  be  retained  in  the  body  during  growth  or  may  go  into  the 
milk.  All  the  rest  is  excreted  in  the  urine  and  feces.  The  value  of 
the  manure  therefore  depends,  first  of  all,  on  the  kind  of  feed  the  ani- 


FiG.  60a. — Such  Losses  of  Fertility  Occur  on  ]\Iany  Farms 

When  manure  is  loosely  piled  under  the  eaves,  heavy  losses  of  fertility  occur 
thru  fermentation  and  leachino:.  Note  that  every  hard  rain  will  leach  fertility 
from  the  manure  pile  to  tlie  ditch  in  tlie  foreground.      (From  Wisconsin  Station.) 


mal  gets.     Only  feeds  rich  in  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash 
make  rich  manure. 

The  proportion  of  the  total  fertilizing  constituents  supplied  in  the 
feed  which  is  recovered  in  the  manure  depends  on  the  age  and  kind  of 
animal.  Mature  horses  at  work  store  no  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  or 
potash,  but  merely  repair  their  body  tissues  as  they  are  broken  down. 
Hence,  they  excrete  all  the  fertilizing  constituents  contained  in  their 

1  Owing  to  the  European  war,  prices  of  some  fertilizers  are  at  present  much 
higher  than  here  indicated. 


214 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


feed.  When  animals  which  are  nearly  mature  are  fattened,  but  little 
nitrogen  or  mineral  matter  is  stored  in  the  body,  over  95  per  ct.  being 
put  out  in  the  manure.  Pigs  fattened  while  still  growing  and  storing 
nitrogen  in  their  lean  meat  tissues  return  in  the  manure  but  85  per  ct, 
of  the  nitrogen  in  their  feed.  Very  young  animals,  growing  rapidly 
in  bone,  muscle,  and  body  organs,  will  store  in  their  body  most  of  the 
fertilizing  constituents  of  their  feed.  As  milk  is  rich  in  nitrogen  and 
mineral  matter,  the  cow  in  milk  returns  in  the  manure  but  about  75 
per  ct.  of  the  nitrogen  and  90  per  ct.  of  the  mineral  matter  of  her  feed, 
the  rest  going  into  the  milk. 

Considering  the  proportion  of  the  various  classes  and  ages  of  ani- 


FiG.  60b. — Result  op  Allowing  Manure  to  Waste  Away 

When  manure  is  allowed  to  waste  away  as  in  the  preceding  illustration,  not 
only  is  much  of  the  weight  of  the  manure  lost,  but  that  which  remains  contains 
much  less  fertility  per  ton  than  fresh  manure.  The  pile  of  corn  at  the  left  was 
grown  on  a  plot  fertilized  with  manure  which  had  been  exposed  to  the  weather 
over  winter.  The  large  pile  at  the  right  was  grown  on  a  plot  fertilized  with 
the  same  amount  of  fresh  manure.      (From  Wisconsin  Station.) 

mals  on  the  average  farm,  probably  about  80  per  ct.  of  the  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  of  the  feed  is  recovered  in  the  feces  and 
urine. 

Fertility  and  manurial  value  of  feeds. — In  buying  or  selling  feeds 
far  too  few  farmers  consider  their  value  as  fertilizers  as  well  as  their 
feeding  value.  The  amounts  of  fertilizing  constituents  in  all  important 
feeds  are  given  in  Appendix  Table  III.     For  comparison,  the  data  for 


MANURIAL  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


215 


typical  feeds  and  animal  products  are  given  in  the  following  table. 
The  fertility  value  of  each  has  been  computed  at  the  rates  for  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  previously  given.  The  last  column  gives 
the  average  manurial  value  of  the  feed ;  i.e.,  80  per  ct.  of  the  fertility 
value.  On  the  average,  the  manure  resulting  from  feeding  1  ton  of  the 
feed  will  have  this  value,  if  so  cared  for  as  to  prevent  loss. 


Fertilizing  constituents 

in  feeding  stuff 

s  and  animal  products 

Fertilizing  constituents  in  1,000  lbs. 

Fertility 
value 
per  ton 

Manurial 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
acid 

Potash 

value 
per  ton 

Concentrates 
Bent  corn    ....          .... 

Lbs. 

16.2 

19.8 
19.8 
25.6 
70.6 

9.9 
20.5 

5.8 
3.4 

23.3 
17.7 

5.8 
1.2 

Lbs. 

6.9 

8.1 

8.6 

29.5 

26.7 

3.1 
3.9 
2.1 
1.6 

15.5 
6.5 
1.9 
0.4 

Lbs. 

4.0 
5.6 
5.3 

16.2 
18.1 

13.6 

16.3 

15.0 

4.4 

1.8 
1.4 
1.7 
0.4 

Dollars 

6.85 
8.42 
8.43 
13.49 
29.63 

5.20 
9.36 
3.78 
1.81 

9.96 
7.10 
2.43 
0.51 

DoUars 
5.48 

Oats    

Wheat     

Wheat   bran    

Cottonseed  meal,  choice   .  . . 

Roughages 

Timothy  hay 

6.74 

6.74 

10.79 

23.70 

4.16 

Red  clover  hay  

Oat  straw    

Corn  silage   

Animals  and  products 

Fat  ox   

7.49 
3.02 
1.45 

Fat  pig    

Milk    

Butter     

Y.94 

As  shown  in  the  fourth  column,  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and 
potash  removed  from  the  soil  in  a  ton  of  corn  grain  would  cost  about 
$6.85  if  bought  in  commercial  fertilizers.  On  account  of  its  richness 
in  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash,  the  fertility  value  of  a  ton  of 
wheat  bran  is  $13.49,  while  that  of  wheat  is  only  $8.43.  Because  the 
legumes  usually  obtain  much  of  their  nitrogen  from  the  air,  only  a 
part  of  the  fertility  in  a  ton  of  clover,  worth  $9.36,  may  have  been 
taken  from  the  soil.  Clover  hay  is  80  per  ct.  richer  than  timothy  hay 
and  about  2.5  times  as  rich  as  oat  straw  in  fertility. 

Of  the  feeds  listed,  cottonseed  meal  has  the  highest  fertility  value, 
$29.63  per  ton;  this  explains  why  it  has  often  been  used  directly  as  a 
fertilizer.  Millions  of  dollars  worth  of  this  feed,  one  of  the  richest 
and  best  for  dairy  cows  and  fattening  cattle,  are  annually  applied  to 
southern  cotton  fields  to  make  another  crop  of  cotton.  The  farmers  of 
New  England  also  spread  thousands  of  tons  of  this  valuable  feed  on 
their  fields.  Where  the  meal  is  first  fed  to  live  stock,  the  milk  or  flesh 
produced  should  easily  pay  its  cost,  and  under  good  management  also 


216 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


for  much  of  the  labor  of  feeding.  AVith  proper  care  and  application, 
the  manure  resulting  from  each  ton  of  meal  fed  would  be  worth  $23.70, 
the  manurial  value,  as  surely  as  would  the  application  to  the  same  land 
of  commercial  fertilizers  worth  this  amount.  This  would  be  nearly 
clear  profit. 

Selling  fertility. — The  preceding  table  further  shows  that  those  who 
sell  such  crops  as  hay,  corn,  and  wheat,  part  with  far  more  fertility 
for  a  given  sum  than  do  those  who  sell  animals  or  their  products.  The 
farmer  who  sells  1.000  lbs.  of  clover  hay,  worth  $5  to  $8,  parts  with 


Fig.  61. — Saving  the  Fertility  in  Feedlno  Sti  j  fs 

Where  possible,  the  manure  should  be  drawn  directly  to  the  fields  and  spread 
each  day.      (From  Breeder's  Gazette.) 

about  as  much  fertility  as  if  he  had  sold  1,000  lbs.  of  fat  ox  or  fat  pigs, 
worth  $60  to  $75,  or  more.  Based  on  the  selling  price,  milk  carries 
considerable  fertility  from  the  farm,  and  butter  practically  none. 
Farm  crops  may  be  regarded  as  raw  products,  while  farm  animals, 
milk,  wool,  butter,  etc.,  represent  manufactured  products.  A  large 
amount  of  raw  material  in  the  form  of  grass,  hay,  corn,  etc.,  is  put 
into  animals,  and  the  heavy  waste  or  by-product  resulting  in  the  form 
of  manure  conserves  most  of  the  fertility,  when  carried  back  to  the 
fields.     The  farmer  who  feeds  his  crops  to  live  stock  is  a  manufacturer 


MA.NLUUAL  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  217 

as  well  as  a  producer,  with  two  possible  profits  instead  of  one,  while 
his  farm  should  lose  little  of  its  fertility.  The  farmer  who  grows  and 
sells  grain,  hay,  and  straw  is  selling  a  large  amount  of  fertility,  the 
need  of  which  will  surely  be  apparent  as  time  goes  on  and  his  fields 
give  smaller  and  smaller  returns.  Such  a  farmer  is  slowly  but  surely 
mining  phosphorus  and  potash  from  his  soil,  which  can  be  replaced 
only  by  some  purchased  material. 

Virgin  soils  as  a  rule  contain  great  quantities  of  available  fertility, 
and  the  pioneer  farmers  in  America,  drawing  upon  Nature's  store, 
have  given  little  consideration  to  how  their  crops  are  fed,  and  have  not 
realized  that  they  are  steadily'  and  often  wastefully  drawing  on  the 
fertility  which  is  their  principal  capital.  The  western  farmer,  when 
marketing  corn  or  wheat,  or  the  southern  planter,  W'hen  selling  seed 
cotton,  considers  he  is  selling  labor  and  rent  of  land.  Rarely  does  he 
realize  that  he  is  also  selling  fertility,  to  replace  which  would  cost  a 
considerable  part  of  all  the  crop  brings.  Rather  than  to  reckon  the 
value  of  his  crop  at  the  market  price,  he  should  recognize  that  its  true 
value  when  sold  from  the  farm  is  really  the  market  price  minus  the 
value  of  the  fertility  which  the  crop  removes  from  the  soil. 

In  Great  Britain,  Miiere  many  of  the  farmers  are  long-period  tenants, 
the  manurial  value  of  feeding  stuft's  is  recognized  by  law.  AVhen  a 
tenant  vacates  his  leasehold  he  is  paid  for  the  manurial  value  of  feeds 
which  he  has  recently  purchased  and  fed  on  the  farm,  and,  under  cer- 
tain conditions,  for  the  manurial  value  of  grain  produced  on  the  farm 
and  fed  to  stock.  Similar  provisions  should  be  drafted  into  farm  leases 
in  this  country'. 

Composition  and  value  of  fresh  manure. — Tho  the  value  of  the 
manure  produced  by  each  class  of  animals  varies  with  the  nature  of  the 
feed  supplied,  it  is  important  to  study  the  average  composi|j,ori  of 
manure  for  each  class,  as  given  in  the  following  table.^ 

Composition  of  one  ton  of  average  manure  from  farm  animals 

Phosphoric 

Water  Nitrogen  acid  Potash  Value 

Per  ct.                        Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs.  Dols. 

Horse  manure  78                     14                     5  11  3.30 

Cow  manure   86                     12                     3  9  2.74 

Sheep  manure  68                     19                     7  20  4.74 

Pig  manure  87                    10                    7  8  2.52 

Horse  or  sheep  manure  contains  less  water  than  that  of  cows  or  pigs, 
and  these  are  known  as  "hot  manures"  because  their  low  water  content 
permits  rapid  fermentation,  or  heating,  when  stored.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  voidings  of  the  cow  and  pig  form  "cold  manures,"  the  high 

2  Adapted  from  Van  Slyke,  Fertilizers  and  Crops,  p.  291. 


218 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


water  content  cheeking  fermentation.  Sheep  manure  has  the  highest 
value  per  ton,  based  on  the  fertility  it  furnishes,  and  pig  manure  the 
lowest.  Mixed  farm  manure  contains  about  10  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  5  lbs. 
of  phosphoric  acid,  and  10  lbs.  of  potash  per  ton. 

The  total  value  of  the  fertilizing  constituents  in  the  manure  voided 
annually  by  the  various  farm  animals  per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight  is  about 
as  follows :  horse,  $30.12 ;  cow,  $36.14 ;  sheep,  $29.70 ;  and  pig,  $38.08. 

Losses  in  farm  manures. — While  manure  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
products  of  the  farm,  many  farmers  who  freely  purchase  commercial 


Fig.  62. — A  Manure  Shed  and  Pit 

When  manure  is  packed  solidly  in  such  a  shed  as  this,  with  concrete  founda- 
tion, tliere  is  but  little  loss  from  fermentation  and  none  from  leaching.  (From 
Hoard's  Dairyman.) 


fertilizers  allow  much  of  the  value  of  the  manure  produced  by  their 
live  stock  to  be  washed  away  in  streams  or  otherwise  needlessly  lost. 
It  is  most  important  to  realize  that  manure  is  a  highly  perishable 
product,  and  that  unless  proper  care  is  taken  of  it  over  half  its  value 
may  be  lost.  Plant  food  may  be  wasted  thru:  (1)  Loss  of  urine, 
(2)  loss  by  leaching,  (3)  loss  of  nitrogen  by  fermentation.  Tho  all 
the  phosphoric  acid  is  excreted  in  the  feces,  on  the  average  over  40 
per  ct.  of  the  nitrogen  and  60  per  ct.  of  the  potash  voided  by  farm 
animals  is  in  the  urine.     Pound  for  pound,  the  urine  has  a  greater 


MANURIAL  VALUE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS  219 

fertilizing  value  than  the  feces,  except  with  the  pig,  which  voids  a 
watery  urine.  The  fertility  in  urine  is  also  in  solution  and  much  more 
readily  available  to  plants  than  that  in  the  feces.  Obviously,  plenty 
of  bedding  should  be  used  to  absorb  this  valuable  fertilizer. 

A  manure  pile  under  the  eaves,  against  the  side  of  the  barn,  or 
manure  lying  for  months  in  an  open  barn  yard,  is  a  sight  all  too  com- 
mon on  American  farms.  When  manure  is  exposed  to  the  leaching 
action  of  rains,  the  losses  are  great,  even  amounting  to  half  of  the  total 
value  in  periods  of  2  to  5  months.  Unfortunately,  the  loss  falls  on  the 
constituents  which  are  most  soluble  and  therefore  most  quickly  available 
to  plants. 

Thru  fermentation  a  large  share  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  manure  may 
be  lost  as  ammonia  or  gaseous  nitrogen.  The  strong  smell  common  in 
close  horse  stables  is  due  to  the  escaping  ammonia  produced  by  the 
breaking  down  of  nitrogen  compounds  in  the  urine.  In  the  hot  fer- 
mentations which  take  place  in  dry,  loosely-packed  manure,  the  tem- 
perature may  rise  high  enough  to  cause  "fire  fanging,"  when  as  much 
as  80  per  ct.  of  the  nitrogen  may  be  lost.  Phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
are  not  lost  thru  fermentation,  but  heavy  losses  may  occur  thru 
leaching. 

Care  of  manure. — To  prevent  loss  in  manure,  the  urine  should  be 
saved  by  having  tight  gutters  and  using  plenty  of  bedding.  If  possible, 
the  manure  should  be  drawn  directly  to  the  fields  and  spread  each  day. 
When  this  cannot  be  done  it  should  be  stored,  preferably  under  cover, 
in  well-packed  piles  kept  moist  to  prevent  hot  fermentation.  If  hogs 
or  cattle  have  access  to  the  shed,  they  aid  in  firming  the  pile.  In 
Europe  manure  is  often  stored  in  pits  or  cisterns.  When  it  is  necessary 
to  leave  manure  out  of  doors,  the  pile  should  be  made  high  and  com- 
pact, so  that  rains  will  not  soak  thru,  and  should  be  built  with  the  sides 
perpendicular  and  the  top  sloping  toward  the  center.  It  is  impossible 
to  prevent  all  waste  in  caring  for  manure,  but  under  proper  manage- 
ment not  over  10  to  20  per  ct.  of  the  nitrogen  and  practically  none  of 
the  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  will  be  lost. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  is  the  fertilizing  value  of  feeding  stuffs  and  farm  manures  computed? 

2.  About  what  part  of  the  fertilizing  constituents  do  mature  work  horses  void 
in  the  manure;   fattening  pigs;   dairy  cows? 

3.  Give  examples  of  feeds  wliich  are  rich  and  of  others  which  are  low  in  fer- 
tilizing constituents. 

4.  What  is  the  manurial  value  of  a  feed? 

5.  A  farmer  who  intends  to  fatten  some  steers  has  on  his  farm  shelled  corn, 
corn  silage,  and  clover  liay.  To  provide  a  well-balanced  ration,  he  sells  10  tons 
of  corn  and  buys  as  much  cottonseed  meal  as  he  can  with  the  proceeds.     Using 


220  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

local   market   prices   and   assuming   that   the   cottonseed   meal    is   worth    enough 

nTore  t^  him  than  the  corn  to  pay'for  hauling,  find  the  gain  or  loss  an  manur.al 

value  from  the  exchange.  t  r  j.     •„a. 

G.  Compare  the  fertility  lost  in  selling  a  ton  of  corn  and  a  ton  of  fat  pigs, 

a  ton  of  butter. 

7    What  are  "hot"  and  "cold"'  manures? 

8.  What  is  the  average  amount  of  fertility  in  mixed  f^J^^  J^'^;"";;^^  ^e  cared 

9.  How  may  losses  occur  in  farm  manure  and  how  should  manure  be  carea 

for  to  lessen  loss? 


Part  III 
FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  HORSES 

I,    Factors  Influencing  the  Work  Done  by  Horses 

While  practically  every  farmer  has  horses  or  mules  to  perform  work 
on  the  farm,  comparatively  few  have  large  numbers.  Perhaps  for  this 
reason,  most  of  us  do  not  realize  the  true  rank  of  the  horse  industry 
in  this  country.  The  1910  census  shows  that  more  than  27,000,000 
horses  and  mules,  valued  at  over  $3,000,000,000,  were  owned  in  the 
United  States.  Indeed,  the  value  of  these  animals  is  greater  than  that 
of  all  the  dairy  and  beef  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  pigs  combined. 

To  feed  these  work  animals  costs  over  $2,000,000,000  each  year.  Yet 
the  scientific  and  economical  feeding  of  this  class  of  live  stock  usually 
receives  scant  attention.  ]\Iany  a  farmer,  for  example,  will  carefully 
determine  which  feeds  furnish  most  cheaply  a  well-balanced  ration  for 
his  dairy  cows.  But  he  will  continue  to  feed  his  horses  the  usual  ration 
in  his  locality,  such  as  oats  and  timothy  hay,  no  matter  how  expensive 
these  feeds  may  be.  As  is  shown  in  Chapter  XIX,  by  careful  selection 
of  feeds  for  horses,  it  is  often  possible  to  save  one-third  of  the  feed  bill, 
with  no  injury,  and  in  some  cases  even  a  benefit  to  the  animals. 

Before  a  detailed  study  of  feeds  for  horses  and  of  the  methods  of 
feeding  and  care  is  begun,  we  will  briefly  consider  the  factors  which 
influence  the  work  they  perform.  Since  83  per  ct.  of  our  work  animals 
are  horses,  the  following  discussions  usually  treat  of  the  horse.  How- 
ever, the  same  feeds  may  be  used  for  mules  and  the  same  principles  of 
feeding  and  care  applied. 

Work  done  by  horses. — In  measuring  work,  the  units  used  are  the 
foot-pound  and  the  foot-ton.  A  foot-pound  is  the  amount  of  work  done 
in  lifting  one  pound  one  foot  against  the  force  of  gravity ;  and  a  foot- 
ton  the  amount  done  in  lifting  one  ton  one  foot  against  gravity.  The 
rate  at  which  work  is  performed  is  measured  in  terms  of  horse-power. 
A  horse-power  is  the  power  required  to  lift  33,000  lbs.  at  the  rate  of  1 

221 


222  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

ft.  per  minute,  or  to  lift  1  lb.  at  the  rate  of  33,000  ft.  per  minute.  To 
illustrate,  a  horse  drawing  up  a  loaded  bucket  weighing  100  lbs.  from 
a  well  330  feet  deep  in  one  minute  exerts  a  force  equal  to  1  horse- 
power. 

The  work  which  horses  can  do  depends  on  their  weight,  muscular 
development,  and  endurance.  On  the  average,  a  1,000-lb.  horse  work- 
ing steadily  10  hours  a  day  can  develop  about  0.67  to  0.83  horse  power 
and  do  6,600  to  8,200  foot-tons  of  work  a  day.  A  1,600-lb.  horse  will 
produce  1.06  to  1.33  horse  power  and  do  about  10,500  to  13,200  foot- 
tons  of  work  daily.  An  ox  can  draw  as  heavy  a  load  as  a  horse  of  the 
same  weight,  but  ordinarily  at  only  two-thirds  the  speed.  A  man  will 
do  about  one-fifth  as  much  work  as  the  average  horse,  tho  for  a  minute 
or  two  he  can  exert  a  full  horse  power  or  even  more. 

The  character  of  the  road  bed  is  a  most  important  factor  in  determin- 
ing how  heavy  a  load  a  horse  can  draw.  While  only  25  to  67  lbs.  of 
draft  are  required  to  haul  a  load  of  a  ton  (including  weight  of  wagon) 
on  a  good  pavement,  the  draft  on  a  common  earth  road  is  75  to  224  lbs. 

True  value  of  feeds  for  work. — To  be  able  to  feed  horses  economic- 
ally, it  is  necessary  to  understand  the  true  value  of  different  feeds 
for  the  production  of  work.  We  have  learned  in  Chapter  III  that  only 
the  net  energy  of  the  feed  can  be  used  to  produce  such  external  work 
as  propelling  the  body,  carrying  a  burden,  or  pulling  a  load. 

The  most  extensive  investigations  on  the  work  yielded  by  various 
feeds  are  those  of  the  German  investigators,  Wolff  and  Zuntz,  Some 
of  their  results  are  presented  in  the  following  table,  which  shows  how 
much  work  1  lb.  of  different  feeds  may  yield  if  fed  to  a  horse  already 
receiving  enough  to  maintain  his  body  when  idle. 

Possible  work  from  1  lb.  of  various  feeds  wJien  fed  to  the  horse 

Total  Nutrients                     Net  Possible 

Crude                digestible  required  for  nutrients  work  from 

Feeding  stuff                fiber                  nutrients  mastication  remaining  1  lb.  of 

and  digestion  feed 

Per  ct.                   Lbs.  Lbs.                         Lbs.  Ft.-tons 

Corn    1.7                 0.785  0.082  0.703  G07.7 

Linseed  cake   9.4                 0.G90  0.125  0.5(55  4S8.4 

Oats     10.3                 0.615  0.124  0.401  424.4 

Meadow  hay   ....2G.0                 0.391  0.209  0.182  157.3 

Glover  hay 30.2                 0.407  0.239  0.168  145.2 

Carrots   1.6                 0.113  0.021  0.092  79.5 

Wheat  straw 42.0                 0.181  0.297  -0.116  -100.3 

Fiber,  the  woody  material  of  plants,  is  less  digestible  than  the  other 
nutrients  and,  moreover,  much  energy  is  used  up  in  masticating  and 
digesting  feeds  containing  much  of  it.  Therefore,  the  higher  a  feed 
is  in  fiber,  the  less  work  it  will  yield  per  pound.  While  each  pound  of 
corn  yields  607.7  foot-tons  of  work,  meadow  or  clover  hay  produces 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  HORSES 


223 


only  one-fourth  as  much,  and  more  energy  is  actually  spent  in  digesting 
and  masticating  wheat  straw  than  it  supplies.  Hence,  it  has  a  negative 
value  for  producing  work,  tho  it  may  aid  in  keeping  a  horse  warm. 
Carrots  yield  but  a  small  amount  of  work  per  pound,  due  to  their 
watery  nature.  It  is  clear  from  this  table  that  the  harder  a  horse 
works,  the  greater  must  be  the  proportion  of  concentrates,  such  as  corn, 
and  oats,  in  his  ration,  and  the  smaller  the  proportion  of  roughages,  as 
hay  and  straw. 

Types  of  work  performed  by  the  horse.— It  is  evident  that  the  horse 
at  work  must  receive  a  larger  supply  of  nutrients  than  when  idle,  and 
that  the  amount  needed  will  depend  on  the  severity  of  the  work  done. 
Let  us  then  consider  what 
types  of  work  the  horse  per- 
forms. His  work  usually  con- 
sists of  a  more  or  less  complex 
combination  of  the  following 
simple  kinds:  (1)  Locomotion, 
or  traveling  along  a  level 
course  without  a  load;  (2) 
raising  the  body,  with  or  with- 
out a  load,  against  the  force 
of  gravity  in  ascending  a 
grade;  C3)  carrying  a  load; 
(4)  draft,  or  hauling  a  load. 
A  horse  drawing  a  load  up  a 
hill  combines  all  of  these  types. 
He  is  (1)  advancing  and  at  the 
same  time  (2)  raising  his  body. 
Likewise,    he   is    (3)    carrying 

the  harness  and  (4)  hauling  the  load.  In  descending  the  hill  the 
horse  will  be  called  upon  to  perform  even  a  fifth  type  of  labor,  brac- 
ing himself  to  prevent  too  rapid  a  descent. 

The  amount  of  nutrients  required  in  each  of  these  types  of  work  has 
been  determined  in  careful  experiments.  However,  the  results  are  of 
theoretical  rather  than  practical  interest,  for  the  work  of  most  horses 
varies  greatly  from  day  to  day  and  is  usually  of  a  complex  nature, 
difficult  to  divide  into  these  simple  types.  All  that  can  commonly  be 
done  is  to  estimate  whether  the  horse  is  performing  light,  medium,  or 
heavy  work,  and  then  compute  a  ration  which  meets  the  standard  for 
this  degree  of  labor.  As  we  have  seen  in  Chapter  VI,  normally  the 
carbohydrates  and  fats  furnish  the  energy  used  in  producing  work,  and 
no  more  protein  is  usually  broken  down  during  work  than  during  rest. 
Hence,  the  nutrient  requirements  of  horses  at  work  resemble  those  of 


Fig.  63.— Tlie  conformation  of  the  draft 
horse,  developed  by  years  of  breeding,  fits 
him  to  haul  heavy 'loads  at  a  relatively 
slow  pace. 


224  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

fattening  animals.  With  both  these  classes,  after  growth  is  completed 
the  ration  may  consist  largely  of  carbohydrates  and  fat,  with  only 
sufficient  protein  to  ensure  complete  digestion  of  the  ration. 

It  is  not  necessary,  and  is  often  not  advisable  nor  economical,  to 
furnish  as  much  digestible  crude  protein  in  the  ration  as  stated  in  the 
^Yolff-Lehmann  standard.  (See  Appendix  Table  IV.)  Horses  at  hard 
work  have  been  fed  for  considerable  periods  without  harm  on  rations 
having  nutritive  ratios  as  wide  as  1:28.0.  However,  as  shown  on 
Page  47,  when  the  nutritive  ratio  is  wider  than  1 :8.0  or  1 :10.0,  the 
digestibility  of  the  ration  is  decreased  and  feed  is  wasted. 

Feeding  standard  for  horses. — From  a  study  of  American  and 
European  investigations,  the  authors  have  prepared  the  following 
standard  (given  also  in  Appendix  Table  V),  which  states  in  simple 
terms  the  nutrient  requirements  of  idle  horses,  and  of  those  performing 
light,  medium  and  heavy  work. 

Modified  Wolff -Lehmann  standard  for  horses 

Per  day  per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight 

Dry  Disrestible 

matter  crude 
protein 

Lbs.  Lbs. 

Idle    horses    13.0-18.0  0.8-1.0 

Horses  at  light  work   .  .  15.0-22.0  1.1-1.4 

Horses  at  medium  work  lG.0-24.0  1.4-1.7 

Horses  at  heavy  work  .  18.0-2G.0  2.0-2.2 

It  will  be  noted  that  while  only  5  to  8  lbs.  more  dry  matter  is  advised 
for  the  horse  at  hard  work  than  for  one  which  is  idle,  he  requires  8.9  to 
10.5  lbs.  more  total  digestible  nutrients.  This  means  that  the  idle  horse 
can  be  maintained  on  such  feeds  as  hay  alone,  which  is  low  in  total 
digestible  nutrients,  and  furnishes  but  relatively  little  net  energy. 
However,  the  ration  for  the  hard-worked  horse  must  be  more  concen- 
trated in  character,  containing  a  much  smaller  proportion  of  hay  or 
other  roughage.  As  the  work  becomes  harder,  a  slightly  narrower 
nutritive  ration  is  advisable.  The  amount  of  protein  here  stated  is  the 
tninimum  advisable,  and  considerably  more  may  lie  supplied  if  protein- 
rich  feeds  are  lower  in  price  than  carbonaceous  feeds. 

Influence  of  speed  on  work. — The  horse  is  at  his  best  for  drawing 
loads  when  moving  at  a  rate  of  2  to  2.5  miles  per  hour.  If  held  to  a 
slower  pace  and  especially  if  urged  to  move  faster,  his  efficiency 
decreases.  AVhen  worked  at  the  rate  of  11.25  miles  per  hour,  he 
accomplishes  less  than  one-tenth  of  the  amount  of  work  of  which  he  is 
capable.  \A^hen  trotting  with  no  load  the  horse  expends  nearly  twice 
as  much  energy  per  mile  of  travel  as  when  walking.  Among  the  rea- 
sons why  more  energy  is  recpiired  to  perform  a  certain  amount  of  work 


Total 

Nutritive 

digestible 

ratio 

nutrients 

Lbs. 

1: 

7.0-  9.0 

8.0-9.0 

10.0-13.1 

8.0-8.5 

12.8-15.6 

7.8-8.3 

15.9-19.5 

7.0-8.0 

FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  HORSES  225 

at  a  fast  pace  are:  (1)  In  trotting  or  galloping  the  rise  and  fall  of 
the  body  are  much  greater  than  in  walking.  Energy  is  wasted  in  these 
movements,  and  hence  a  smaller  amount  is  available  for  onward  move- 
ment. (2)  At  a  rapid  pace  the  work  of  the  heart  is  increased,  the 
temperature  rises,  and  much  heat  is  lost  thru  the  evaporation  of  water 
from  the  skin  and  lungs  in  the  eti'ort  to  keep  the  body  temperature 
normal.  The  proportion  of  the  food  which  produces  heat  is  thus 
increased,  while  less  can  be  converted  into  work. 

To  keep  mail-coach  horses,  which  were  pushed  at  top  speed,  in  con- 
dition, they  could  often  be  worked  but  one  hour  a  day,  traveling  only 
eight  miles  even  on  good  roads.  AVhile  a  pound  of  additional  load 
makes  but  little  difference  to  a  draft  horse,  with  running  horses  the 
requirement  of  speed  makes  it  necessary  that  the  weight  carried  (rider 
and  saddle)  be  as  small  as  possible.  An  ounce  of  additional  loading 
may  make  a  difference  of  a  yard  or  more  in  half  a  mile  of  running. 

Influence  of  grade. — In  going  up  a  grade,  the  horse  must  not  only 
propel  his  body  and  the  load  over  the  ground  but  must  also  raise  them 
against  the  force  of  gravity.  In  ascending  a  grade  of  10.7  ft.  in  100  ft. 
the  horse  expends  three  times  as  much  energy  per  mile  as  when  travel- 
ing on  a  level  road.  The  steeper  the  grade,  the  greater  the  energy 
required. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  going  down  a  gentle  incline,  owing  to  the 
force  of  gravity  less  energy  is  required  than  on  a  level  road,  which 
results  in  a  saving  of  nutrients.  If  the  grade  is  steeper  than  10  feet 
in  100,  however,  the  horse  must  expend  energy  in  bracing  himself  and 
the  load  against  a  too  rapid  descent  and  hence  uses  as  much  as  when 
traveling  on  the  level.  On  a  still  steeper  downward  slope  more  energy 
is  expended  than  on  a  level  course.  Obviously,  a  great  saving  of  feed 
may  be  effected  by  a  proper  use  of  wagon  brakes  in  a  hilly  country. 

II.     Preparation  of  Feed  ;  Water  ;  Salt 

Chaffing  hay. — With  horses  at  ordinary  farm  work,  which  have 
abundant  time  to  chew  their  feed  thoroly,  cutting  or  chaffing  hay  prob- 
ably does  not  result  in  sufficient  saving  to  warrant  the  expense.  How- 
ever, in  stables  w'here  large  numbers  of  horses  are  kept,  the  hay  is 
frequently  chaffed.  Somewhat  less  is  then  wasted,  especially  if  it  is  of 
rather  poor  quality,  and  dust  may  be  easily  laid  by  sprinkling  with 
water.  The  grain  allowance  is  often  mixed  with  part  of  the  chaffed 
hay,  which  forces  the  horses  to  eat  the  grain  more  slowly  and  chew  it 
more  thoroly.  A  common  practice  in  Europe  is  to  mix  cut  straw  with 
chaffed  hay,  more  straw  thus  being  eaten  than  w'ould  otherwise  be  the 
case. 


226  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Grinding  grain. — Where  oats  are  mixed  with  chaffed  hay,  there  is  no 
advantage  in  crushing  the  grain  if  the  horses  have  good  teeth.  It  is 
also  doubtful  if  it  pays  to  crush  or  grind  oats  when  fed  alone,  except 
perhaps  for  hard-worked  horses  which  have  but  little  time  in  the  stable, 
or  for  those  which  bolt  their  grain  or  have  poor  teeth.  All  small,  hard 
grains,  such  as  wheat,  barley,  rye,  and  kafir,  should  be  ground  or,  bet- 
ter, rolled.     Com  is  preferably  fed  on  the  cob. 

Soaking  or  cooking  grain. — AVhen  such  grains  as  wheat  and  l^arky 
cannot  conveniently  be  rolled  or  ground,  thej^  should  be  soaked  ^efore 
feeding,  to  soften  the  kernels.  Ear  corn  that  is  so  dry  and  flinty  as  to 
injure  the  horses'  mouths  should  also  be  soaked  or  ground. 

The  custom  of  cooking  even  a  small  portion  of  the  feed  given  to 
horses  has  almost  ceased,  since  experiments  have  shown  that  uncooked 
feed  gives  just  as  good  results. 

Watering  the  horse. — Extensive  tests  have  shown  that  horses  may  be 
watered  before,  after,  or  during  a  meal  without  interfering  with  the 
digestion  or  absorption  of  the  food  eaten.  Therefore,  individual  cir- 
cumstances and  convenience  should  determine  the  time  of  watering, 
but  when  a  system  is  once  adopted  it  should  be  rigidly  adhered  to,  for 
a  change  from  one  system  to  another  lessens  the  appetite.  A  horse  long 
deprived  of  water  or  having  undergone  severe  exertion  should  be 
Avatered  before  being  fed,  but  it  is  dangerous  to  allow  a  horse  much 
water  when  very  warm.  A  moderate  drink  taken  slowly  will  refresh 
him  and  do  no  harm. 

About  10  to  12  gallons,  or  100  lbs.,  of  water  should  be  provided  daily 
for  each  horse.  In  warm  weather  and  when  at  hard  work,  horses  will 
drink  more  water  than  at  other  times,  owing  to  the  greater  evaporation 
of  water  from  the  body.  The  nature  of  the  feed  also  affects  the  quan- 
tity of  water  drunk. 

Salt. — The  horse  shows  great  fondness  for  salt  and  thrives  best  when 
regularly  supplied  with  it.  A  reasonable  allowance  is  two  ounces  per 
head  daily. 

III.    Hints  on  Feeding  and  Caring  for  Horses 

General  hints  on  caring  for  horses. — There  is  great  truth  in  the 
Arab  saying,  "Rest  and  fat  are  the  greatest  enemies  of  the  horse." 
Regular  exercise  or  work  is  necessary  for  health  and  a  long  period  of 
usefulness.  A  mature  horse  should  travel  not  less  than  5  to  6  miles 
daily  and  the  highly-fed  colt  should  have  abundant  exercise.  When- 
ever a  horse  is  not  working,  reduce  the  grain,  even  to  one-half,  to 
avoid  digestive  troubles. 

To  maintain  health,  horses  should  be  housed  in  well-ventilated  quar- 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  HORSES 


227 


ters  and  be  protected  from  drafts.  Previous  to  1836  the  annual  loss  of 
horses  in  the  French  army  was  enormous.  When  the  stables  were 
enlarged  and  properly  ventilated  the  loss  was  reduced  to  one-seventh 
the  former  figures.  A  cool,  well-ventilated  stable  is  far  preferable  to 
warm,  close  quarters. 

It  is  important  to  blanket  the  horse  in  cold  weather  whenever  his 
work  ceases  and  he  is  forced  to  stand  in  the  cold  for  even  a  short  time. 
Tlforo  and  careful  grooming  is  necessary  to  remove  the  solid  matter 
left  on  the  animal's  coat  when  the  perspiration  evaporates,  and  to  keep 
the  pores  open  and  the  skin  healthy.  This  should  be  done  with  a  dull 
currycomb,  a  brush  being  used  on  the  tender  head  and  legs.     The  horse 


Fig.  64. — Speed  Decreases  the  Work  that  can  be  Performed 

A  pound  of  additional  load  makes  but  little  difference  to  a  draft  horse,  but 


Avith  tlie  race  horse  the  load  must  be  made  as  light  as  possible. 
Horseman.) 


(From  Western 


will  rest  much  more  comfortably  after  a  hard  day's  work  if  groomed 
at  night.     Bedding  the  stall  well  is  just  as  important. 

The  good  horseman  always  cares  for  the  teeth  of  his  charges  and 
sees  that  no  sharp  points  and  ragged  edges  prevent  proper  chewing  of 
the  food.  He  also  sees  that  the  collar  and  harness  fit  well  and  that  the 
horses'  feet  are  properly  shod.  He  makes  any  change  in  the  ration 
gradually,  for  a  sudden  change  may  bring  on  colic.  In  starting  the 
day's  work  he  gradually  warms  the  horse  to  his  work,  so  that  his  collar 
will  be  shaped  to  his  shoulders,  his  muscles  in  proper  trim,  his  bowels 
relieved,  and  breathing  and  heart  action  quickened  before  he  is  put  to 
extreme  effort.  At  the  end  of  a  trip  or  the  day's  work  he  likewise 
cools  his  horse  off  gradually  before  returning  to  the  stable. 

The  work  horse. — The  regularity  of  work,  feeding,  and  rest  usually 
brings  a  long  life  of  usefulness  to  the  work  horse.  In  the  previous 
paragraphs  we  have  discussed  the  principles  of  feeding  and  caring  for 


228  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

the  work  horse.  The  amount  of  feed  necessary  will  depend  on  the  size 
of  the  horse  and  the  nature  and  severity  of  the  work.  As  a  rule,  from 
10  to  18  lbs.  of  concentrates  should  be  fed  daily,  the  total  allowance  of 
grain  and  hay  ranging  from  2  to  3  lbs.  for  each  hundred  pounds  live 
weight.  The  proportion  of  concentrates  to  roughage  should  depend  on 
the  severity  of  the  w'ork.  The  morning  meal  should  be  light,  not  over 
one-third  the  daily  concentrate  allowance  being  given  at  this  time,  with 
a  small  amount  of  hay.  The  mid-day  meal  is  sometimes  omitted, 
especially  with  horses  on  the  street  all  day,  tho  most  horsemen  believe 
that  some  grain  should  be  fed  then.  The  heaviest  allowance  of  the 
concentrates  and  most  of  the  roughage  should  be  fed  at  night.  The 
concentrates  may  well  be  mixed  with  a  peck  of  moistened  chaffed  hay, 
and  the  rest  of  the  hay  fed  long.  To  avoid  digestive  trouble  it  is  highly 
important  that  the  allowance  of  concentrates  be  reduced  on  idle  days. 
It  is  also  well  to  feed  some  bran  at  such  times,  either  dry  or  as  a  bran 
mash. 

On  coming  to  the  stable  at  noon,  the  work  horse  should  have  a  drink 
of  fresh,  cool  water,  care  being  taken,  if  he  is  warm,  that  he  does  not 
drink  too  rapidly,  or  too  much.  Before  going  to  work  he  should  be 
watered  again.  If  possible,  an  hour  should  be  given  for  the  mid-day 
meal  and  the  harness  removed.  When  the  horse  comes  in  after  the 
day's  labor,  give  him  a  drink,  unharness  at  once,  and  when  the  sweat 
has  dried  brush  him  well. 

Wintering  the  farm  horse. — The  farm  horse  when  idle  during  the 
winter  may  be  economically  wintered  wholly,  or  in  part,  on  roughages. 
Such  feeds  as  the  refuse  stems  from  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  which  has 
been  fed  to  dairy  cattle  or  fattening  cattle  or  sheep  can  often  be  fed 
with  advantage  to  such  horses.  It  is  preferable  to  turn  idle  horses  out 
daily  into  a  lot,  protected  from  the  wind,  rather  than  keep  them  closely 
confined.  At  shedding  time,  feed  some  grain  even  to  idle  horses. 
Light  grain  feeding  should  begin  a  few  weeks  before  the  spring  work 
starts,  for  horses  are  soft  after  a  W'inter  of  idleness. 

The  mule. — It  is  often  stated  that  mules  require  less  feed  than  horses 
to  do  a  given  amount  of  work,  but  there  appears  to  be  no  foundation 
for  this  statement.  At  3  years  of  age,  when  shedding  his  milk  teeth, 
the  mule  is  especially  susceptible  to  digestive  disorders.  At  other  times 
he  is  an  excellent  feeder,  as  a  rule  being  more  sensible  in  eating  and 
less  likely  to  gorge  himself  than  the  horse,  and  hence  less  subject  to 
colic  or  founder.  The  mule  is  not  particular  in  his  taste  and  consumes 
roughages  which  the  horse  will  refuse.  He  also  endures  hot  weather 
better,  and  because  of  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  hoof  and  its  thick, 
strong  wall  and  sole  is  less  subject  than  the  horse  to  lameness  of  the 
foot.     However,  the  lack  of  weight  and  the  small  size  of  his  foot  some- 


.     FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  HORSES  229 

what  unfit  the  mule  for  heavy  draft  in  the  city,  as  he  does  not  get  a  good 
hold  on  the  pavements. 

Tho  the  mule  will  endure  more  neglect  than  the  horse,  good  care  and 
feed  will  prove  profitable.  For  feeding  the  mule  the  same  feeds  are 
available  as  for  the  horse,  and  the  same  principles  apply  in  suiting  the 
feed  to  the  size  of  the  animal  and  the  severity  of  the  work  performed. 

Fattening  horses. — As  the  markets  demand  draft  horses  in  high  flesh, 
in  certain  districts  their  fattening  has  become  an  important  industry. 
The  horses  are  usually  purchased  in  the  fall  after  farm  work  is  over 
and  gradually  accustomed  to  a  heavy  grain  ration,  getting  all  they  will 
clean  up  when  on  full  feed.  At  this  time  some  of  the  heaviest  feeders 
will  consume  nearly  twice  as  much  as  when  at  hard  work,  or  about 
2  lbs.  of  grain  for  every  100  lbs.  live  weight.  The  chief  concentrates 
used  are  corn  and  oats,  often  with  moderate  allowances  of  such  protein- 
rich  feeds  as  wheat  bran,  linseed  meal,  or  cottonseed  meal  added  to 
balance  the  ration.  Clover  or  alfalfa  hay  is  commonly  fed,  for  these 
hays  are  much  superior  to  timothy  hay.  In  addition,  silage  of  good 
quality  may  be  advantageously  fed.  At  the  Illinois  Station  ^  a  ration 
of  8.6  lbs.  corn,  8.6  lbs.  oats,  2.4  lbs.  wheat  bran,  0.4  lb.  oil  meal,  and 
13.7  lbs.  clover  hay  gave  excellent  results  iii  fattening  horses.  A  most 
successful  ration  for  1,450-lb.  horses  at  the  Pennsylvania  Station  -  was 
12.3  lbs.  shelled  corn,  1,4  lbs.  cottonseed  meal,  16.9  lbs.  corn  silage, 
and  10.5  lbs.  mixed  hay.  Horses  thus  fattened  require  about  the  same 
amount  of  feed  as  fattening  cattle  for  100  lbs.  gain  in  weight. 

Formerly  the  horses  were  usually  allowed  no  exercise,  great  care  then 
being  necessary  to  avoid  digestive  troubles  and  to  keep  their  legs  from 
becoming  stocked.  Now  many  feeders  allow  the  horses  to  run  in  pad- 
docks. Due  to  the  forced  feeding,  surprising  gains  are  often  secured. 
Instances  are  reported  where  horses  have  gained  4  lbs.  or  even  more 
per  head  daily  for  periods  of  about  2  months.  While  at  present  horses 
must  be  thus  fattened  to  bring  top  prices,  such  rapid  and  excessive 
fattening  is  of  little  benefit  and  may  even  be  injurious.  When  put  to 
hard  w^ork,  the  horse  quickly  loses  much  of  the  soft  flesh  gained  by  such 
forcing. 

Feeding  the  carriage  and  saddle  horse. — Style  and  action  are  of  the 
greatest  importance  with  these  horses,  economy  of  feeding  standing 
second.  Good  drivers  in  this  country  still  assert  that  the  oat-fed  horse 
exhibits  mettle  as  from  no  other  feed.  Tho  oats  easily  excel  any  other 
single  grain  or  concentrate,  there  are  numerous  instances  in  which  a 
properly  combined  concentrate  mixture  has  given  just  as  good  results, 
as  is  shown  in  the  following  chapter.     From  8  to  10  lbs.  of  oats  or 

lObrecht,  111.  Bui.  141.  2  Cocliel,  Penn.  Bui.  117. 


230 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


their  equivalent,  divided  into  3  feeds,  should  suffice  for  concentrates, 
the  evening  meal  being  the  largest.  In  case  the  horse  is  at  all  con- 
stipated, bran  should  be  fed,  dry  or  as  a  mash.  The  hay  is  usually 
fed  long,  for  the  carriage  horse  has  ample  time  for  his  meals.  From 
10  to  12  lbs.  of  hay  is  a  liberal  allowance,  bringing  the  total  ration 
vs^ithin  18  to  22  lbs.  The  carriage  horse  must  be  trim  in  body  and  so 
cannot  consume  much  bulky  feed,  yet  some  roughage  is  always  neces- 
sary.   With  this  class  of  horses  the  feeder  must  also  guard  against 


Fig.  65. — Profit-Making  Brood  Mares  and  Foals 

A  team  of  such  brood  mares  would  bring  added  profits  to  many  farms  where 
no  colts  are  now  raised.  They  will  not  only  raise  profitable  foals  but  will  also 
do  no  small  part  of  the  farm  work.     (From  Breeder's  Gazette.) 


feeding  too  large  amounts  of  such  laxative  feeds  as  clover  and  alfalfa 
hay  or  bran.  Carriage  horses  are  usually  overfed  and  exercised  ir- 
regularly or  too  little,  and  mainly  for  these  reasons  their  period  of 
satisfactory  service  is  often  brief.  On  daj'^s  when  they  are  not  driven, 
the  usual  amount  of  roughage  may  be  fed  but  the  amount  of  grain 
should  be  reduced. 

Feed  and  care  of  the  brood  mare. — Many  farmers  who  raise  no  colts 
would  find  it  profitable  to  keep  a  good  team  of  brood  mares  to  do  part 
of  the  work  and  also  to  raise  colts  each  year.     The  brood  mare  must, 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  HORSES  231 

however,  have  proper  feed,  care  and  management.  Recent  statistics 
show  that  only  60  per  ct.  of  the  brood  mares  that  are  bred  each  year 
produce  living  foals ;  this  enormous  loss  is  largely  due  to  neglect  and 
carelessness.  Idleness  must  be  avoided.  Mares  which  work  regu- 
larly are  more  certain  to  bring  good  foals  than  idle  ones,  yet  judg- 
ment must  always  be  used  in  working  them.  Pulling  too  hard,  back- 
ing heavy  loads,  wading  thru  deep  snow  or  mud,  or  other  over- 
exertion is  dangerous.  When  not  worked,  the  mare  should  be  turned 
out  daily  for  exercise.  As  foaling  time  approaches,  the  work  should 
be  lightened,  and  preferably  discontinued  3  days  to  a  week  before 
foaling.  When  laid  off,  the  mare  should  still  be  allowed  exercise. 
Mares  heavy  in  foal  are  apt  to  be  cross  and  quarrelsome,  but  they 
should  always  be  handled  gently. 

Feeding  a  working  brood  mare  is  simpler  than  feeding  an  idle  one. 
The  essentials  are  a  well-balanced  ration  of  good-quality  feeds,  con- 
taining a  liberal  supply  of  protein,  lime,  and  phosphorus,  which  are 
needed  for  the  growth  of  the  fetus.  An  abundance  of  these  nutrients 
is  especially  needed  by  pregnant  mares  that  have  not  yet  finished  their 
own  growth,  and  those  that  are  suckling  foals,  for  there  is  then  a 
double  draft  on  the  mothers.  All  feeds  should  be  free  from  dust, 
mold,  or  decay,  which  might  cause  abortion.  Mares  used  only  for 
breeding  purposes  do  well  without  grain  when  on  nutritious  pasture. 
With  insufficient  pasture  and  in  winter  some  grain  should  be  given. 
The  feed  should  not  be  concentrated  in  character  but  should  have 
considerable  bulk  or  volume.  The  bowels  should  be  kept  active  thru 
a  proper  combination  of  such  feeds  as  bran,  linseed  meal,  roots,  etc. 

Gestation  period  and  foaling  time. — The  average  period  of  gesta- 
tion for  the  mare  is  about  11  months,  or  340  days,  tho  it  may  vary 
quite  widely.  Shortly  before  foaling  the  grain  allowance  should  be 
decreased  and  laxative  feeds  more  freely  used.  To  avoid  infection 
which  may  cause  navel  ill  and  joint  disease,  the  stall  in  which  the 
mare  is  to  foal  should  be  thoroly  cleaned  and  disinfected.  The  mare 
should  be  given  a  half  bucket  of  water  before  foaling,  and  when  on 
her  feet  again  she  will  need  a  drink  of  water  or,  better,  of  gruel  made 
from  half  a  pound  of  fine  oatmeal  in  half  a  bucket  of  lukewarm  water. 
A  light  feed  of  bran  is  good  for  the  first  meal  and  this  may  be  fol- 
lowed by  oats,  or  by  equal  parts  by  bulk  of  corn  and  bran.  After 
foaling  the  mare  should  be  confined  for  a  few  days,  her  ration  being 
simple  and  not  too  abundant.  With  favorable  conditions,  after  4  or 
5  days  she  may  be  turned  to  pasture,  and  in  about  2  weeks,  or  even 
before  if  work  is  urgent  and  the  mare  has  fully  recovered,  she  may  go 
back  to  light  work. 

Only   the   quick-maturing   draft   filly  should   under   any   cireum- 


232  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

stances  be  bred  as  a  2-year-old;  all  others  when  past  three.     Altho   * 
the  natural  and  customary  foaling  time  is  in  the  spring,  when  the  I 
mare  must  do  a  hard  season's  work  or  she  fails  to  get  in  foal  from 
spring  service  she  may  be  bred  to  foal  in  the  fall. 

The  foal. — The  thrifty,  well-fed  foal  should  make  more  than  half 
its  entire  growth  during  its  first  year.  If  stunted  during  this  time, 
rarely  will  it  reach  full  size.  It  is  therefore  of  the  greatest  importance 
that  the  foal  start  life  full  of  vigor  and  be  kept  growing  thriftily. 
Immediately  after  birth  it  should  take  a  good  drink  of  the  colostrum, 
or  first  milk,  of  the  dam.  This  natural  purgative  removes  the  fecal 
matter  which  accumulates  in  the  alimentary  canal  before  birth. 
Otherwise,  a  dose  of  castor  oil  or  a  rectal  injection  is  necessary.  On 
account  of  the  great  danger  from  navel  and  joint  disease,  the  stump 
of  the  navel  cord  should  be  carefully  disinfected. 

If  the  dam  does  not  supply  the  proper  amount  of  milk,  feed  should 
be  given  her  which  will  stimulate  the  milk  flow.  Good  pasture  grass 
is,  of  course,  the  best,  but  in  its  absence  a  liberal  allowance  of  grain 
should  be  fed.  On  the  other  hand,  an  oversupply  of  milk  or  milk  too 
rich  in  fat  may  cause  indigestion  in  the  foal.  The  dam's  ration 
should  then  be  reduced  and  some  of  her  milk  drawn,  the  foal  being 
allowed  the  first  portion,  which  is  the  poorest  in  fat. 

Feeding  the  foal.— By  placing  the  feed  box  low,  when  3  or  4  weeks 
old  the  foal  will  begin  nibbling  from  the  mother's  supply  and  will 
soon  acquire  a  taste  for  grain.  The  earlier  the  foals  so  learn  to  eat, 
the  more  independent  they  become,  and  the  mare  will  then  be  able 
to  do  more  work.  Crushed  oats  or  oatmeal,  with  bran,  are  excellent 
feeds,  as  is  a  mixture  of  4  parts  of  crushed  corn,  3  of  bran,  and  1  of 
linseed  meal.  Colts  should  be  given  good  clover,  alfalfa,  or  other 
legume  hay  as  soon  as  they  will  eat  it,  and  all  the  clean,  pure  water 
they  want.  Watchfulness  should  always  detect  the  first  appearance 
of  such  ailments  as  constipation  or  diarrhea.  In  all  such  troubles  the 
food  for  both  dam  and  foal  should  at  once  be  lessened,  since  nothing 
assists  Nature  more  than  reducing  the  work  of  the  digestive  tract. 

If  the  dam  cannot  furnish  enough  milk  for  the  foal,  cow's  milk  is 
the  best  substitute.  The  poorer  the  milk  is  in  butter  fat  the  better, 
for  mare's  milk  contains  only  about  1.1  per  ct.  fat.  Should  the  mare 
die  or  have  no  milk,  the  foal  may  with  proper  care  be  raised  on  cow's 
milk  modified  by  the  addition  of  sugar  and  lime  water. 

When  the  mare  is  worked,  the  foal  should  not  follow  the  dam  but 
should  be  left  in  a  cool,  dark  stall  during  the  day,  where  it  will  be  safe 
and  not  bothered  by  flies.  The  mare  should  be  brought  to  the  barn  to 
suckle  the  colt  in  the  middle  of  the  forenoon  and  afternoon.  Allow 
the  mare  to  cool  of£,  and  perhaps  draw  some  of  the  milk  by  hand 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  HORSES  233 

before  turning  her  into  the  stall  with  the  foal.  Brood  mares  at  work 
and  nursing-  strong  foals  should  be  heavily  fed  to  sustain  a  good  milk 
flow.  If  the  mare  is  worked  during  the  day,  it  is  well  to  turn  both 
dam  and  foal  onto  grass  pasture  at  night,  and  in  addition  feed  a 
liberal  allowance  of  grain. 

When  dams  and  foals  are  running  at  pasture,  a  pen  should  be  made 
in  the  pasture  near  where  the  horses  are  inclined  to  loiter,  building 
it  so  high  that  the  mares  will  not  try  to  jump  it,  and  with  sufficient 
space  from  the  ground  to  the  bottom  rail  to.  allow  the  foals  to  pass 
under.  Put  in  a  handy  gate,  then  an  ample  feed  trough.  After  the 
mares  have  eaten  together  in  the  pen  a  few  times  the  foals  will  visit 
this  "creep"  regularly  after  their  dams  are  shut  out.  To  induce  the 
dams  to  loiter  about,  keep  a  large  lump  of  rock  salt  near  by  and  occa- 
sionally give  a  feed  of  oats  at  the  pen.  If  flies  torture  the  foal,  it  is 
better  to  confine  the  mare  and  foal  in  a  darkened  stall  during  the  day 
and  turn  to  pasture  only  at  night. 

Weaning. — At  from  4  to  6  months  of  age,  the  foal  should  be  weaned. 
When  the  mare  is  bred  soon  aftet-  foaling,  or  if  for  any  reason  the 
dam  and  foal  are  not  doing  well,  it  is  best  to  Avean  comparatively 
early.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  mother  has  a  good  flow  of  milk  and 
her  services  are  not  needed,  the  foal  may  be  allowed  to  suckle  6 
months.  If  the  foal  has  been  fed  increasing  quantities  of  grain  as  it 
developed,  weaning  will  cause  little,  if  any,  setback  to  either  dam  or 
foal.  In  parting  dam  and  foal  keep  them  well  separated,  else  all 
must  be  done  over  again.  The  grain  ration  of  the  mare  should  be 
reduced  till  she  is  dried  off. 

The  education  of  the  colt  should  not  be  postponed  until  it  is  sought 
to  "break"  him  as  a  3-year-old,  and  then  attempt  to  l)ring  the  inde- 
pendent animal  under  man's  guidance  all  at  once.  The  young  foal 
should  be  taught  to  lead  at  the  halter,  stand  tied  in  the  stall,  and 
display  proper  stable  manners. 

After  weaning. — The  foal  should  be  kept  growing  vigorously  after 
weaning  by  an  ample  allowance  of  feed.  To  make  good  bone  and 
strong  muscle,  feeds  rich  in  protein,  calcium,  and  phosphorus  should 
be  chosen.  Nothing  is  superior  to  bluegrass  or  other  good  pasture, 
and  oats.  Among  the  concentrates,  wheat  bran,  cottonseed  meal,  lin- 
seed meal,  buckwheat  middlings,  wheat  middlings,  soj^beans,  cowpeas, 
and  Canada  field  peas  are  rich  in  protein,  which  goes  to  build  muscle, 
and  in  phosphorus,  needed  in  building  the  skeleton.  All  the  legume 
hays — alfalfa,  clover,  cowpea,  etc. — are  rich  in  calcium.  A  combina- 
tion of  such  concentrates  and  roughages  as  these  should  furnish 
abundant  bone-  and  muscle-forming  material.  Corn,  barley,  kafir, 
milo,  and  emmer  may.  be  used  as  part  of  the  ration,  when  properly 


234  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

l)alaneed  by  protein-rich  feeds.  When  fed  large  amounts  of  alfalfa 
hay,  colts  will  relish  a  little  timothy  or  prairie  hay,  straw,  or  corn 
fodder  occasionally.  If  maximum  growth  is  desired  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  feed  some  grain  even  on  good  pasture.  The  young  horse  which 
is  not  developing  the  proper  skeleton  may  be  fed  substances  especially 
rich  in  phosphorus  and  calcium,  such  as  2  or  3  ounces  daily  of  tankage 
containing  ground  bone,  or  1  ounce  daily  of  ground  bone  or  ground 
rock  phosphate   (floats). 

Cost  of  raising  horses. — According  to  estimates  received  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  from  10,000  farmers  in 
various  parts  of  the  United  States,  the  average  cost  of  raising  colts 
to  the  age  of  3  years  was  $104.06.  Deducting  the  value  of  the  work 
done  before  the  third  year,  the  net  cost  was  $96.54.  The  average 
selling  price  of  the  colts  when  three  years  old  was  $136.17.  About 
54  per  ct.  of  the  total  cost  of  raising  the  colt  was  for  feed,  16  per  ct. 
for  care  and  shelter,  and  the  remainder  for  the  service  fee  of  the 
stallion,  time  lost  by  the  brood  mare,  veterinary  services,  and  miscel- 
laneous expenses. 

Harper  ^  estimates  that  up  to  3  years  of  age  a  colt  will  eat  2.25  tons 
of  grain  and  4.75  tons  of  hay,  in  addition  to  pasture  for  15  months. 

The  stallion. — Nothing  so  vital  to  the  well-being  of  the  stallion  is 
so  commonly  neglected  as  is  proper  exercise.  The  best  exercise  is 
honest  work ;  there  is  no  better  advertisement  of  a  stallion  than  letting 
him  be  seen  at  work  on  the  road  or  farm.  Even  during  the  breeding 
season  a  half  day's  work  regularly  is  beneficial.  When  real  work  is 
impossible  he  should  travel  on  the  road  at  least  5  miles  daily. 

The  ration  of  the  stallion  should  consist  of  first  class,  wholesome 
feeds,  supplying  ample  protein  and  mineral  matter  for  thrift  and 
vigor.  The  choice  of  feeding  stutit's  will  depend  on  the  particular 
locality,  the  same  principles  applying  as  in  the  case  of  the  work  horse. 
The  following  concentrates  are  well-suited  to  feed  with  timothy  hay  or 
prairie  hay:  oats;  oats  4  parts,  corn  6  parts,  and  bran  3  parts  by 
weight;  oats  4  parts,  corn  6  parts,  and  linseed  meal  1  part;  corn  7 
parts,  bran  3  parts,  linseed  meal  1  part.  When  some  alfalfa  or  clover 
is  fed,  a  smaller  proportion  of  protein-rich  concentrates  is  needed. 

No  specific  directions  as  to  the  total  amount  of  feed  required  can 
be  given,  since  this  depends  on  the  exercise  the  animal  gets  and 
whether  he  is  a  "  hard  "  or  "  easy ' '  keeper.  A  safe  rule  is  to  keep  the 
stallion  in  good  flesh  but  not  "hog  fat,"  for  this  will  injure  his  breed- 
ing powers.  Most  horsemen  advise  that  in  the  breeding  season  he  be 
kept  gaining  just  a  bit,  rather  than  be  allowed  to  run  down  in  flesh. 
While  some  recommend  feeding  3  times  a  day,  4  is  preferred  by  others. 

3  Management  and  Breeding  of  Horses,  p.  337. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  HORSES  235 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Define  foot-pound,  foot-ton,  and  horse-power. 

2.  Compare  the  amounts  of  work  possible  from  1  lb.  each  of  corn,  oats,  clover 
hay,  and  wheat  straw. 

3.  What  four  types  of  work  does  a  horse  do? 

4.  Compute  the  cheapest  satisfactory  ration  you  can  from  feeds  available 
locally  for  a  1,500-lb.  horse  at  medium  work.  Use  the  method  illustrated  in 
Chapter  VIII  in  selecting  the  cheapest  feeds. 

5.  What  are  the  effects  of  speed  and  of  grade  on  the  energy  required  for  a 
given  amount  of  work? 

C.  Discuss  the  value  of  chaffing  hay,  grinding  grain,  and  soaking  or  cooking 
grain  for  horses. 

7.  When  should  a  horse  be  watered? 

8.  Discuss  the  feeding  of  work  horses. 

9.  How  sliould  idle  farm  horses  be  wintered? 

10.  What  feeds  are  chiefly  used  for  fattening  horses? 

11.  Mention   some  important  points  to  be  observed  in   feeding  and  caring   ror 
carriage,  and  saddle  horses. 

12.  Briefly  discuss  the  feed  and  care  of  the  brood  mare. 

13.  How  would  you  feed  a  foal  before  and  after  weaning? 

14.  Discuss  the  feed  and  care  of  atalliona. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

FEEDS  FOR  HORSES 

I.    Carbonaceous  Concentrates 

in  most  localities  the  usual  ration  for  horses  is  restricted  to  but 
one  or  two  kinds  of  grain  with  no  more  variety  in  the  roughages. 
Due  to  custom  and  prejudice  many  insist  that  these  particular  feeds 
are  by  far  the  most  economical  and  satisfactory  ones  which  can  be 
fed.  Yet  in  traveling  from  one  district  or  country  to  another  we  find 
a  large  number  of  feeds  all  successfully  used  for  horses.  In  the 
northern  Mississippi  valley  the  ration  is  quite  generally  corn  and 
oats,  while  in  the  South  corn  is  the  chief  concentrate,  with  dried  corn 
leaves,  legume  hay,  and  other  roughages.  On  the  Pacific  coast  crushed 
barley  is  the  common  grain  used,  with  hay  from  the  cereals.  In 
Europe  various  oil  cakes  and  beans  are  often  fed.  In  Arabia,  Persia 
and  Egypt  barley  is  the  only  grain,  while  in  sections  of  India,  a  kind 
of  pea,  called  gram,  is  the  usual  food.  In  some  districts  horses  are  fed 
such  unusual  feeds  as  the  leaves  of  limes  and  grapevines,  the  seeds 
of  the  earob  tree,  bamboo  leaves,  and  dried  fish. 

As  further  shown  in  this  chapter,  a  long  list  of  feeds  are  well- 
suited  to  horses.  Hence,  to  feed  these  animals  economically,  due  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  the  prices  of  the  various  feeds  which  are  locally 
available,  and  a  combination  selected  which  will  maintain  them  in  good 
condition  at  a  minimum  expense. 

Oats. — This  grain,  so  keenly  relished  by  horses,  is  the  standard  with 
which  all  other  concentrates  are  compared.  Oats  are  the  safest  of 
all  feeds  for  the  horse,  due  to  the  hull,  which,  tho  furnishing  little 
nutriment,  gives  the  grain  such  bulk  that  not  enough  can  be  eaten 
at  one  time  to  cause  digestive  trouble  from  gorging.  Oats  form  a 
loose  mass  in  the  stomach,  which  is  easily  digested,  while  such  heavy 
feeds  as  corn  tend  to  pack,  causing  colic.  It  does  not  pay  to  crush 
or  grind  oats  except  for  horses  with  poor  teeth,  for  foals,  and  possibly 
for  horses  worked  extremely  hard.  New  or  musty  oats  should  be 
avoided,  as  they  may  cause  colic. 

Substitutes  for  oats. — Due  to  the  widespread  demand,  oats  are 
quite  commonly  so  high  in  price  that  they  are  not  an  economical  feed. 
Fortunately,  both  science  and  practice  show  that  other  single  grains  or 

236 


FEEDS  FOR  HORSES 


237 


mixtures  of  concentrates  may  be  substituted  with  no  detrimental 
effects.  The  Arab  horse,  so  renowned  for  mettle  and  endurance,  is 
fed  no  oats,  but  chiefly  barley.  After  experiments  covering  35  years 
with  over  30,000  horses,  Lavalard,  the  great  French  authority  on  the 
feeding  of  horses,  concluded  that  other  feeds  could  be  substituted  for 
oats  with  a  great  saving  in  cost  of  feed  and  witliout  lowering  the 
efficiency  of  the  horses.  The  many  grains  and  by-products  which  may 
be  used  in  place  of  oats  are  discussed  in  the  following  paragraphs. 
From  the  data  there  given  one  can  easily  determine  what  feeds  are 


Fig.  66. — Oats  ake  I  nexcelled  j^uk  Carriage  or  Saddle  Horses 

While  oats  excel  any  other  single  grain  or  concentrate  for  such  horses,  a  proper 
combination  of  other  concentrates  Avill  give  just  as  satisfactory  results. 

most  economical  for  him  to  use,  considering  the  local  prices.  In  sub- 
stituting other  feeds  for  oats,  due  care  must  be  taken  to  balance  the 
ration  to  meet  the  feeding  standards,  as  given  on  Page  224. 

Indian  corn. — Next  to  oats,  Indian  corn  is  the  grain  most  com- 
monly used  for  horses  in  America.  Millions  of  horses  and  mules 
derive  their  strength  from  this  grain,  never  knowing  the  taste  of 
oats.  Because  it  costs  less  and  has  a  higher  feeding  value  than  oats 
per  100  lbs.,  it  is  extensively  used  where  large  numbers  of  horses  must 
be  fed  economically.  As  corn  is  a  heavy,  highly-concentrated  feed, 
care  must  be  taken  to  limit  the  amount  fed  to  the  needs  of  the  animal. 


238  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

When  corn  forms  a  large  part  of  the  concentrate  allowance,  the  ration 
should  be  balanced  by  concentrates  or  roughages  rich  in  protein  and 
mineral  matter,  in  which  this  grain  is  deficient.  AVith  legume  hay, 
which  supplies  the  lacking  protein  and  ash,  for  roughage,  com  may  be 
successfully  fed  as  the  only  concentrate  to  mature  horses  at  general 
farm  work.  Such  an  unbalanced  ration  as  corn  and  timothy  or 
prairie  hay,  all  feeds  low  in  protein,  is  not  satisfactorj-.  This  is  shown 
by  the  following  results  secured  at  the  Kansas  Station  ^  with  1,150-lb. 
artillery  horses,  performing  more  severe  labor  than  the  average  farm 
horse. 

Corn  and  carbonaceous  hay  requires  supplement 


Average  ration 
Lot  I 

Gain    or    loss 
in    weight 

Lbs. 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Daily    cost    of 

feed     per 

1,000    lbs. 

live    weight 

Cents 

Oats,  12  lbs.     Prairie  hay,  14  lbs.   . . 

16.3 

1:7.9 

20.3 

Lot  II 

Shelled  corn,  12  lbs.     Prairie  hay,  14 

lbs.  —29.3 

1:11.5 

17.5 

Lot  III 

Shelled  corn,  6  lbs. 

Wheat  bran,   3  lbs. 

Linseed  meal,  1  lb.     Prairie  hay,   14 

lbs.    ..3.9 

1:8.4 

16.7 

In  winter,  when  the  weather  was  cold  and  the  work  moderate, 
there  was  no  apparent  difference  between  the  horses  in  Lots  I  and  II. 
However,  as  the  weather  grew  warmer  and  the  w^ork  more  severe,  the 
horses  in  Lot  II,  fed  the  unbalanced  ration  of  corn  and  prairie  hay,  lost 
weight,  tho  their  endurance,  wind  and  spirit  were  not  injured.  The 
well-balanced  ration  fed  Lot  III  was  fully  as  satisfactory  as  the  oat 
ration  and  cheaper  than  even  the  straight  com  ration.  Similar  re- 
sults were  secured  in  France  with  17,000  army  horses.  Tho  the 
officers  were  at  first  prejudiced  against  corn,  they  finally  had  to 
admit  that  when  it  formed  a  large  part  of  the  concentrates  the  horses 
showed  as  much  energy  and  vigor  as  those  fed  oats,  with  no  more 
sickness.  The  objections  often  raised  that  horses  fed  corn  lack  nerve 
and  action,  sweat  easily,  and  wear  out  earlier  are  probably  due  to 
feeding  too  heavy  an  allowance  of  this  grain  or  failure  to  balance  the 
ration  properly. 

Thruout  the  corn  belt  the  grain  is  usually  fed  on  the  cob  or  shelled. 
Ear  corn  is  safer  to  feed  than  shelled  for  it  keeps  better,  and  the 
horse  eats  it  more  slowly,  chewing  it  more  thoroly.  If  corn  is  ground 
for  horses  with  poor  teeth  or  those  working  long  hours,  it  should  be 
ground  coarsely,  for  fine  meal  forms  a  mass  in  the  stomach  which  is 

iMcCampbell,  Kan.  Bui.  186. 


FEEDS  FOR  HORSES  239 

difficult  to  digest  and  may  cause  colic.  Changes  from  oats  or  other 
feeds  to  corn  should  be  gradual.     New  corn  may  produce  indigestion. 

The  other  cereals.— On  the  Pacific  coast,  and  in  Europe,  Africa, 
and  many  parts  of  the  Orient,  barley  is  extensively  fed  to  horses. 
Pound  for  pound,  it  is  slightly  less  valuable  than  oats.  While  the 
high  price  of  sound  wheat  usually  prohibits  its  use  for  stock  feeding, 
damaged  grain  may  be  fed  to  horses  with  economy,  if  not  moldy. 
Only  moderate  amounts  should  be  fed  and  the  crushed  wheat  should 
be  mixed  with  a  bulky  concentrate  like  bran  or  with  chaffed  hay  or 
straw,  to  avoid  digestive  disturbances,  as  it  tends  to  pack  in  the 
stomach.  Rye  may  also  be  used  for  horses,  the  same  precautions  being 
taken  to  prevent  digestive  trouble  as  with  wheat.  Since  these  grains 
are  hard  and  small,  they  should  be  crushed  or  rolled.  If  finely 
ground  they  form  a  pasty,  unpleasant  mass  when  mixed  with  the 
saliva  in  the  mouth. 

In  the  southwestern  states,  kafir,  milo,  and  the  seeds  of  other  sor- 
ghums are  extensively  used  for  horse  feeding.  Being  small  and  hard, 
they  should  be  ground  or  chopped.  They  may  also  be  fed  unthreshed 
in  the  head  along  with  the  forage. 

Miscellaneous  carbonaceous  concentrates. — Thruout  the  sugar- 
cane districts  cane  molasses  is  often  the  most  economical  source  of 
carbohydrates  for  work  animals.  On  47  plantations,  employing  over 
5,000  work  animals,  chiefly  mules,  an  average  of  9.5  lbs.  of  molasses 
was  fed  per  head  daily  with  excellent  results.  The  molasses  was 
usually  mixed  with  the  concentrates  or  with  cut  hay,  but  was  some- 
times fed  in  troughs  or  poured  on  uncut  roughage.  Due  to  the  high 
price  of  molasses  in  the  northern  states,  it  is  rarely  economical  to  feed 
it  in  any  large  amount,  tho  a  quart  or  so  a  day  may  often  be  profitable 
as  an  appetizer  for  horses  out  of  condition. 

As  beet  molasses  is  very  laxative,  not  over  4  to  5  lbs.  should  be  fed 
pier  head  daily  to  draft  horses,  and  but  2.5  lbs.  to  driving  horses.  In 
these  amounts  and  thinned  and  mixed  with  other  feed,  it  is  well  liked 
by  horses  and  has  given  excellent  results.  Molasses  feeds  of  good 
quality  are  satisfactory  for  horses,  when  economical  in  price. 

Rough  rice  is  an  economical  and  satisfactory  feed  for  horses  and 
mules  in  the  southern  states,  when  low  in  price  compared  with  the 
other  cereals. 

Dried  beet  pidp  is  often  refused  by  horses  when  fed  alone,  but  may 
be  used  as  a  portion  of  the  ration  when  mixed  with  other  concentrates. 

II.    Protein-rich  Concentrates 

Wheat  bran. — Bran  is  one  of  the  most  useful  feeds  for  horses,  be- 
cause of  its  bulky  nature  and  mild  laxative  properties.     If  not  more 


240 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


freely  provided,  its  use  once  a  week,  perhaps  in  the  form  of  a  mash, 
is  desirable.  As  the  immediate  effect  of  a  bran  mash  is  somewhat 
weakening,  it  should  be  given  at  night  and  preferably  before  a  day 
of  rest.  When  low  in  price,  bran  may  be  profitably  fed  in  larger 
amounts  as  a  partial  substitute  for  oats.  Fed  with  timothy  hay,  a 
mixture  of  equal  weights  of  bran  and  corn  has  been  found  equal  to 
one  of  half  oats  and  half  corn. 
Wheat  middlings ;  shorts. — Due  to  their  heavy,  concentrated  nature, 


Fig.  67. — Good  Care  and  Management  Are  as  Necessary  as 
Proper  Feed 

Regularity'  in  working,  watering,  and  feeding  liorsos,  housing  them  in  well- 
ventilated  stables,  and  caring  for  them  intelligently  go  far  toward  ensuring  a 
long  life  of  usefulness.      (From  Prairie  Farmer.) 

middlings  or  shorts  should  be  fed  to  horses  only  in  small  amounts 
and  mixed  with  bulky  concentrates  or  chaffed  roughage.  AVithout 
these  precautions  the  danger  from  colic  is  great,  especially  with  some 
horses. 

Dried  brewers'  grains. — This  concentrate,  extensively  fed  to  dairy 
cows,  is  satisfactory'  for  horses  and  can  often  be  substituted  for  oats 
with  profit.  A  New  Jersey  market  gardener  saved  $150  a  year  in 
feeding  8  horses  when  he  used  dried  brewers'  grains  in  place  of  oats, 
with  corn  and  hay.     Pound  for  pound,  dried  brewers'  grains  are  about 


FEEDS  FOR  HORSES  241 

equal  to  oats.  Not  being  especially  palatable,  they  should  be  mixed 
with  other  concentrates. 

Linseed  meal. — Linseed  meal,  rich  in  protein  and  having  tonic  and 
somewhat  laxative  properties,  is  an  excellent  supplement  for  rations 
poor  in  protein.  Not  over  1  to  1.5  lbs.  per  head  daily  is  ordinarily 
fed,  due  both  to  its  high  price  and  its  laxative  effect.  Linseed  meal 
is  useful  for  bringing  into  condition  rundown  horses  with  rough  coats, 
and  gives  bloom  and  finish  in  fitting  horses  for  show  or  sale. 

Cottonseed  meal. — While  it  is  unsafe  to-  feed  large  amounts  of 
cottonseed  meal  to  horses,  good  results  are  secured  when  this  feed  is 
properly  used.  Being  a  heavy  feed  and  not  particularly  relished  by 
horses,  it  should  be  mixed  with  better-liked  bulky  concentrates,  such  as 
whole  or  crushed  oats,  dried  brewers'  grains,  or  corn-and-cob  meal. 
It  may  also  be  sprinkled  on  silage  or  on  moistened  hay  or  stover.  A 
safe  rule  is  to  feed  not  over  0.2  lb.  of  cottonseed  meal  for  every  100 
lbs.  live  weight  of  animal,  distributed  over  3  daily  feeds.  Horses 
should  be  accustomed  to  the  meal  gradually,  not  over  one-fourth 
pound  being  given  at  each  feed  for  the  first  2  or  3  weeks. 

Leguminous  seeds. — Like  the  horse  bean  and  other  beans  so  widely 
fed  in  Europe,  the  field  pea  in  the  northern  states  and  the  eowpea  and 
soybean  farther  south  are  useful  in  balancing  rations  low  in  protein. 
All  should  be  ground,  and,  on  account  of  their  wealth  of  protein, 
should  never  be  fed  as  the  sole  concentrate. 

Miscellaneous  protein-rich  concentrates. — Various  oil  cakes  and 
meals,  such  as  peanut,  cocoanut,  sunflower  seed,  and  rapeseed  meal,  are 
fed  to  horses  in  Europe  in  quantities  of  2  to-  4  lbs.  per  head  daily 
with  good  results.  Dried  distillers'  grains  have  given  excellent  re- 
sults when  forming  one-fourth  of  the  concentrate  allowance.  Tank- 
age and  Mood  meal  are  useful  for  rundown  horses,  1  to  2  lbs.  of 
tankage  or  1  lb.  of  blood  meal  being  fed. 

III.     Carbonaceous  Roughages 

Too  much  roughage  injurious. — ^While  the  horse  cannot  live  on 
concentrates  alone,  even  on  oats  with  their  strawlike  hulls,  too  much 
roughage  is  also  injurious.  On  account  of  the  small  capacity  of  his 
stomach,  we  cannot  expect  the  horse  at  work  to  secure  most  of  his 
nourishment  from  roughages.  Thru  carelessness  or  mistaken  kind- 
ness, the  mangers  are  often  kept  filled  with  hay.  The  horse  may  then 
eat  far  too  much,  with  digestive  disturbances,  labored  breathing,  and 
quick  tiring  as  the  results.  There  should  always  be  a  definite,  limited 
allowance  of  hay,  fed  mostly  at  night  when  there  is  ample  time  for 
mastication  and  digestion. 


242  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Timothy  hay. — Altho  not  rich  in  digestible  nutrients,  timothy  hay 
is  the  standard  roughage  for  the  horse  thruout  the  northeastern 
United  States.  Its  popularity  is  due  to  its  freedom  from  dust,  its 
palatability,  and  the  fact  that  it  can  be  secured  on  almost  any  market. 
While  timothy  cut  too  green  makes  "washy"  hay,  it  should  not  be 
allowed  to  stand  until  it  becomes  woody  and  indigestible.  A  reason- 
able allowance  of  timothy  hay  is  1  lb.  daily  per  100  lbs.  of  animal. 

Cereal  hay. — On  the  Pacific  coast,  especially  in  California,  the 
cereal  hays — barley,  wild  oat,  wheat,  etc. — are  extensively  employed 
as  roughages  for  horses,  and  in  the  Rocky  mountain  region  oat  hay  is 
of  considerable  importance.  Hay  from  the  cereals  can  often  be  ad- 
vantageously employed  in  many  other  sections  of  the  country,  as  it 
is  fully  equal  to  timothy. 

Other  carbonaceous  hays. — Prairie  hay  from  the  wild  grasses  is  an 
excellent  roughage  for  the  horse  thruout  the  western  states,  being  but 
slightly  less  valuable  than  timothy.  Brome  hay,  a  common  roughage 
in  the  northern  plains  region,  is  fully  equal  to  timothy.  Millet  hay 
from  Hungarian  grass,  Japanese  millet,  etc.,  can  often  be  fed  ad- 
vantageously to  horses.  The  amount  should  be  limited  and  it  should 
be  fed  with  grain  and  preferably  with  other  roughage,  as  otherwise 
serious  kidney  trouble  may  result.  Bermuda  hay  and  Johnson-grass 
hay  are  southern  roughages  well  suited  to  horses  and  equal  to  timothy 
in  feeding  value. 

Corn  fodder  and  corn  stover. — Thickly  grown  fodder  corn  and 
corn  stover,  when  properly  cured  and  cared  for,  are  among  the  best 
of  roughages  for  the  horse,  for  they  are  palatable  and  usually  quite 
free  from  dust.  For  stallions,  brood  mares,  idle  horses,  and  growing 
colts  good  corn  forage  is  usually  an  economical  substitute  for  timothy 
hay.  In  a  trial  at  the  New  Hampshire  Station  ^  corn  stover  was  suc- 
cessfully used  as  the  only  roughage  for  farm  horses  doing  light  work 
in  winter.  When  the  yield  and  feeding  value  of  fodder  corn  are  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  timothy  hay  from  a  like  area,  the  usefulness 
and  economy  of  this  much  neglected  forage  are  apparent. 

Sorghum  fodder  or  hay. — Forage  from  the  sweet  sorghums,  when 
properly  cured,  is  superior  to  corn  forage  for  horses.  It  usually 
deteriorates  rapidly  in  value  after  midwinter  unless  well  cured  and 
kept  dry.  Moldy,  decayed  sorghum  forage  is  especially  dangerous  to 
horses.  Kafir,  tho  not  so  palatable  as  the  sweet  sorghums,  is  exten- 
sively and  profitably  used  in  the  southwestern  states. 

Straw. — Owing  to  its  large  content  of  fiber  and  consequent  low 
value  for  the  production  of  work,  but  little  straw  can  be  fed  to  hard- 
worked  horses.     On  the  other  hand,  horses  doing  little  or  no  work  and 

2  Burkett,  N.  H.  Bui.  82. 


FEEDS  FOR  HORSES 


243 


having  ample  time  for  chewing  and  digesting  their  feed  may  be  win- 
tered largely  on  bright  straw  instead  of  costly  hay.  Farm  horses 
should  not  be  wintered  in  the  barnyard  on  straw  and  com  stover  only, 
without  grain,  for  they  will  then  be  in  no  condition  for  the  severe 
work  of  spring.  The  saving  thru  the  use  of  straw  and  other  cheap 
roughages  is  well  shown  in  a  trial  at  the  IMichigan  Station,^  where 
the  cost  of  feed  for  horses  doing  moderate  work  during  the  winter 
was  29.6  cents  per  head  daily  when  fed  timothy  hay  and  oats.  When 
shredded  corn  stover  and  oat  straw  was  substituted  for  three-fourths 
of  the  timothy-hay,  and  roots,  ear  corn,  and  a  mixture  of  equal  parts 


Mules  at  Work  on  a  Corn  Belt  Farm 


The  mule  is  the  chief  work  animal  on  southern  farms  and  is  increasing  in 
popularity  in  the  corn  states. 

of  bran,  dried  beet  pulp,  and  linseed  meal  replaced  most  of  the  oats, 
the  feed  bill  was  lowered  over  40  per  ct.  and  the  horses  better  main- 
tained their  weights. 

Carbonaceous  roughages  require  supplement. — It  is  important  to 
remember  that  liay  from  the  grasses,  corn  fodder  and  stover,  sorghum 
and  kafir  forage,  and  straw,  are  all  low  in  protein.  Therefore,  when 
these  roughages  are  fed  with  such  grains  as  corn,  barley,  wheat,  and 
kafir,  some  protein-rich  concentrate  should  be  added  to  balance  the 
ration. 

3  Norton,  Mich.  Bui.  254. 


244  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

IV.     Legume  Hay 

Legnme  hay. — AVhen  given  in  moderation,  well-cured  legume  hay 
can  be  satisfactorily  fed  to  horses.  The  widespread  prejudice  against 
legume  hay  for  horse  feeding  is  largely  due  to  these  rich  roughages 
having  been  fed  to  excess  or  to  the  poor  quality  of  the  hay  used. 
Since  alfalfa  and  clover  hay  are  more  like  concentrates  in  nature 
than  is  timothy  hay,  less  should  be  fed  to  replace  a  given  amount  of 
timothy.  Horses  are  especially  fond  of  good  legume  hay  and  must 
not  be  allowed  to  eat  all  they  desire.  It  is  important  that  legume  hay 
for  horses  be  bright  and  well-cured,  for  that  which  is  loaded  with  dust 
and  otherwise  injured  in  quality  may  cause  heaves.  The  following 
statements  regarding  clover  and  alfalfa  hay  will  apply  in  general  to 
hay  from  other  legumes,  such  as  cowpeas  and  lespedeza. 

Clover  hay. — Because  clover  hay  is  often  carelessly  made  and 
loaded  with  dust,  it  is  disliked  by  many  horsemen,  particularly  for 
feeding  roadsters.  This  objection  does  not  apply  to  clean,  properly- 
cured  clover  hay.  For  driving  horses,  clover  hay  may  be  mixed  with 
timothy  hay  or  bright  straw,  while  for  horses  at  ordinary  farm  work 
it  may  form  the  only  roughage:  The  value  of  this  hay  for  farm 
horses  is  shown  by  a  trial  at  the  Illinois  Station  *  with  6  teams  of 
1,400-lb.  horses,  one  in  each  team  getting  clover  hay  and  the  other 
timothy,  with  the  results  shown  in  the  table. 

Clover  vs.  timothy  hay  for  horses 

Gain    in  Daily 

Average   ration  weight  work 

Lbs.  Hours 

Clover-fed  horses 

Corn,  O.n  lbs.  Oats,  7.3  lbs. 

Oil  meal,  0.40  lb.     Bran,  0.61  lb. 

Clover   hay,    15.6    lbs 15.5  7.3 

Timothy-fed  horses 

Corn,  0.8  lbs.  Oats,  7.2  lbs. 

Oil  meal,  0,53  lb.     Bran,  0.60  lb. 

Timothy   hay,    15.6    lbs 3.0  7.3 

Altho  most  of  the  teamsters  were  prejudiced  in  favor  of  timothy 
hay  at  the  beginning,  they  later  reported  that  they  could  observe  no 
difference  in  the  spirit  of  the  horses  or  their  ability  to  endure  hot 
weather. 

Alfalfa  hay. — On  thousands  of  farms  and  ranches  thruout  the 
West,  alfalfa  hay  is  the  only  roughage  fed  horses.  Its  use  is  also 
rapidly  increasing  in  other  sections  of  the  country  with  the  spread 
of  alfalfa  growing.     Alfalfa  hay  for  horses  should  be  free  from  dust 

4  0brecht,  111.  Bui.   150. 


FEEDS  FOR  HORSES  245 

or  mold  and  should  not  be  cut  until  fairly  mature,  as  hay  cut  at  the 
stage  usually  advised  for  cattle  is  too  "washy"  for  horses.  The 
allowance  of  alfalfa  hay  should  always  be  limited,  not  over  1.2  lbs. 
daily  per  100  lbs.  live  weight  being  given  work  horses,  for  when  too 
much  of  this  protein-rich  food  is  eaten  not  only  is  the  stomach  over- 
distended  but  the  kidneys  are  overworked  in  excreting  the  large  excess 
of  nitrogenous  material. 

That  alfalfa  hay  may  be  used  successfully  even  for  horses  doing 
hard  work  at  a  rapid  pace  is  shown  by  a  trial  with  artillery  horses 
carried  on  by  the  Kansas  Station.^  These  horses  worked  harder  than 
the  average  farm  team  does  thruout  the  year,  performing  a  consider- 
able part  of  their  work  at  the  trot  and  no  small  part  at  a  gallop.  One 
lot  of  horses  was  fed  alfalfa  hay  and  another  timothy  hay,  with  the  re- 
sults shown  in  the  table. 

Alfalfa  vs.  timothy  hay  for  horses 

Daily    cost    of 
Av.     gain     or  feed    per 

Average   ration  loss    per  1,000   lbs. 

head  live    weight 

Lbs.  Cents 

Alfalfa- fed  horses 

Shelled  corn,  S  lbs. 

Oats,  2  lbs.  Alfalfa  hay,  10  lbs 25.6  12.95 

Timothy-fed  Jiofses 
Corn,  4  lbs. 
Oats,  8  lbs.  Timothy  hay,  14  lbs '. .  .  .—7.7  19.21 

The  alfalfa-fed  horses,  getting  2  lbs.  less  grain  and  4  lbs.  less  hay 
than  those  fed  timothy,  showed  no  shortness  of  wind,  softness,  or  lack 
of  endurance  and  gained  in  weight  while  the  others  lost.  The  cost 
of  the  alfalfa-hay  ration  was  only  about  two-thirds  that  of  the  tim- 
othy-hay ration.  Alfalfa  with  no  grain,  but  often  with  an  unlimited 
amount  of  straw,  is  a  common  ration  for  idle  horses  thruout  the  West. 

Alfalfa  meal. — When  good  quality  alfalfa  hay  is  available  it  is  not 
economical  to  pay  a  higher  price  for  alfalfa  meal,  for  horses  waste  but 
little  of  such  hay  when  properly  fed.  IMoreover,  alfalfa  meal  is  dusty 
and  disagreeable  to  handle,  and  while  the  dust  may  be  laid  by  wetting 
this  takes  considerable  time. 

V.    Pasture  and  Other  Succulent  Feed 

For  horses  receiving  but  little  exercise  succulent  feeds  are  especially 
beneficial  on  account  of  their  ''cooling,"  laxative  effect.  A  limited 
amount  of  succulent  feed  is  often  employed  thruout  the  year  in 
Europe  for  work  horses  and  even  for  drivers. 

sMcCampbell,  Kan.  Bui.  186. 


246  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Pasture. — Horses  at  pasture  not  only  obtain  succulent  feed,  but 
must  exercise  to  secure  it.  Good  pasture  will  maintain  idle  horses 
satisfactorily ;  for  those  at  hard  work  pasture  without  grain  is  insuffi- 
cient. Not  only  do  the  various  tame  and  wild  grasses  furnish  pasture 
for  horses  but  as  these  animals  are  not  subject  to  bloat  they  may 
graze  the  legumes  as  well.  City  horses  are  often  turned  on  pasture 
so  that  their  feet  may  recover  from  the  ill  effects  of  hard  pavements. 

Corn  silage. — Until  recent  years  little  corn  silage  has  been  fed  to 
horses  and  mules,  but  it  is  now  being  used  with  success  on  many 
farms.  It  should  not  be  the  only  roughage  but  should  serve  as  a 
partial  substitute  for  hay.  While  horses  at  hard  work  can  not  con- 
sume much  silage,  because  of  its  bulky  nature,  it  is  well  suited  to  idle 
horses,  brood  mares,  and  growing  colts.  Since  poisoning  may  result 
from  feeding  moldy  silage  to  horses,  only  that  of  good  quality  should 
be  used,  and  this  fed  under  intelligent  supervision. 

Roots;  tubers;  fruits. — The  only  importance  of  roots  for  horse 
feeding  in  most  sections  of  this  country  is  as  an  aid  to  digestion,  for 
the  cereals  generally  furnish  nutriment  at  lower  cost.  Carrots, 
especially  relished  by  horses,  are  great  favorites  with  horsemen  when 
cost  of  keep  is  not  considered.  It  requires  about  350  lbs.  of  carrots 
or  400  lbs.  of  rutabagas  to  replace  100  lbs.  of  good  meadow  hay. 
Potatoes  may  be  fed,  cooked  or  raw,  in  amounts  up  to  17.5  lbs.  per 
head  daily.  Fresh  fruit  may  sometimes  be  profitably  fed  in  moderate 
amounts  when  there  is  no  market  for  it,  and  dried  fruits,  slightly 
injured  and  thereby  unsalable,  have  been  successfully  used  for  horses. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  should  corn  be  used  for  horse  feeding? 

2.  What  is  the  value  of  the  other  cereals  for  horses? 

3.  Name  and  tell  the  value  of  other  carbonaceous  concentrates  suitable  for 
horses. 

4.  Discuss  the  use  and  value  of  at  least  six  protein-rich  concentrates  suitable 
for  horses.     Which  are  used  most  commonly  in  your  section? 

5.  Why  is  timothy  hay  a  favorite  for  horses? 

G.  What  is  the  value  of  cereal  hay,  prairie  hay,  brome  hay,  millet  hay, 
Bermuda  hay,  and  Johnson-grass  hay? 

7.  Discuss  the  use  of  corn   fodder  and  stover,   sorghum   fodder,   and  straw. 

8.  What  precautions  should  be  observed  in   feeding  legume  hay  to  horses? 

9.  Show  by  examples  how  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  may  be  substituted  for 
timothy  hay. 

10.  Discuss  the  value  for  horses  of  succulent  feeds — pasture,  corn  silage,  and 
roots. 


CHAPTER  XX 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OP  DAIRY  COWS 

I.     The  Dairy  Cow  as  a  Producer  of  Human  Food 

As  the  price  of  land,  labor,  and  feed  increases,  the  dairy  cow  will 
more  and  more  displace  the  strictly  meat  producing  animals,  for  she 
produces  human  food  far  more 
economically  than  does  the 
steer,  sheep,  or  pig.  That  this 
change  is  already  taking  place 
is  brought  out  by  recent  cen- 
sus statistics.  These  show  that 
between  1900  to  1910  the  num- 
ber of  dairy  cows  in  the  United 
States  increased  about  20  per 
ct.,  while  the  number  of  other 
cattle  decreased. 

Cow  and  steer  compared. — 
The  great  economy  with  which 
the  dairy  cow  converts  the 
products  of  the  fields  into  hu- 
man food  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  she  yields  in  her  milk  18  lbs.  or 
more  of  edible  solids  for  every  100  lbs.  of  digestible  matter  in  her 
feed.  This  is  over  6  times  as  much  human  food  as  is  produced  by  a 
steer  from  the  same  amount  of  feed.     (See  Chapter  VI.) 

A  dairy  cow  producing  1  lb.  of  butter  fat  per  day  uses  about  47 
per  ct.  of  her  food  for  the  support  of  her  body,  24  per  ct.  in  the  work 
of  converting  food  nutrients  into  milk,  and  actually  yields  in  her 
milk  about  29  per  ct.  of  the  digestible  nutrients  in  her  feed.^  This 
shows  her  to  be  a  more  efficient  machine  than  either  the  horse  or  the 
steam  engine.     (See  Chapter  VI.) 

Dairy  vs.  beef  type. — When  in  full  flow  of  milk,  a  high-producing 
dairy  cow  is  generally  spare  and  shows  an  angular,  wedge-shaped 
form,  a  roomy  barrel,  spacious  hindquarters,  and  a  large  udder. 
This  conformation  is  in  strong  contrast  to  that  of  the  low-set,  blocky, 
beef  animal,  with  its  compact,  rectangular  form,  and  broad,  smooth 
back.     These  two  types  are  the  result  of  careful  breeding  with  oppo- 


Fig.  69.— Tilly  Alcartra,  the  Holstein 
cow  holding  the  world's  record  for  milk 
production.  The  milk  cans  represent  her 
average  weekly  production,  08  gallons. 
Her  year's  record  was  30,451.4  lbs.  of  milk. 
(From  Country  Gentleman.) 


iHaeeker,  Minn.  Bui.  140. 


247 


248  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

site  objects  in  view.  The  beef  animal  has  been  developed  to  store  in 
its  carcass  the  largest  possible  amount  of  meat.  On  the  other  hand, 
for  generations  the  dairy  cow  has  been  bred  for  the  primary  object  of 
producing  large  yields  of  milk  and  butter  fat.  As  a  result,  tho  a 
good  dairy  cow  will  put  on  flesh  when  she  is  dry,  the  impulse  to  milk 
production  is  so  strong  when  she  is  in  milk  that  even  under  liberal 
feeding  she  shows  little  or  no  tendency  to  fatten  but  uses  all  the  sur- 
plus feed  above  maintenance  for  the  manufacture  of  milk. 

In  view  of  the  widely  differing  nature  of  milk  and  flesh  production, 


Fig.  70. — The  Dairy  Type  and  the  Beep  Type  Are 
Widely  Different 

A  high-producing  dairy  cow  is  generally  spare  and  angular  and  sliows  a  wedge- 
shaped  form,  viewed  from  the  side,  from  the  front,  or  from  the  top  of  the 
withers.  She  has  a  roomy  barrel,  spacious  hindquarters,  and  a  large,  well-shaped 
udder.     (From  Humphrey,  Wisconsin  Station.) 

it  is  not  surprising  that  both  can  not  be  developed  to  the  highest  de- 
gree in  the  same  animal.  As  a  rule,  the  most  perfect  beef  cows  are 
not  economical  milkers,  and  the  best  dairy  cows  are  not  satisfactory 
beef  makers.  In  a  trial  at  the  Minnesota  Station  ^  cows  of  the  beef 
type  required  47  per  ct.  more  feed  per  pound  of  butter  fat  produced 
than  those  of  good  dairy  type.  Cows  which  are  not  of  the  beef  type, 
but  yet  lack  in  depth  of  body,  are  also  not  generally  economical  pro- 

sHaecker,  Minn.  Bui.  35. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  DAIRY  COWS 


249 


ducers,  for  they  cannot  consume  enough  feed  to  make  a  large  yield 
of  milk  possible. 

The  superiority  of  cows  of  the  dairy  type  is  further  shown  by  the 
"cow  censuses"  conducted  by  Hoard's  Dairyman  on  farms  in  many 
states.^  Data  from  over  17,000  cows  showed  that  the  annual  yield 
of  butter  fat  by  those  of  good  dairy  type  was  189  lbs.,  compared  with 
138  lbs.  for  those  lacking  dairy  type.  Yet,  the  annual  cost  of  feed 
was  but  $1.94  more  for  the  good  cows.    While  the  cows  lacking  dairy 


Fig.  71. — The  Beep  Type,  AVith  Compact,  Rectangular  Form 

The  beef  type  is  the  result  of  careful  breeding  to  secure  an  animal  which  will 
store  in  its  body  the  largest  possible  amount  of  high-priced  meat.  This  beef  cow 
has  the  low-set,  blocky,  rectangular  form,  and  broad,  smooth  back  of  the  beef 
type.      (From  Humphrey,  Wisconsin  Station.) 


type  returned  only  $2.03  each  per  year  over  the  cost  of  their  feed, 
those  of  good  dairy  type  brought  in  $17.38  over  cost  of  feed. 

Good  and  poor  producers. — Cows  producing  a  large  amount  of 
milk  and  butter  fat  will  naturally  eat  more  feed  than  those  yielding 
less,  just  as  hard-worked  horses  require  more  than  those  at  light 
work.  However,  the  yield  of  the  high-producing  cows  is  so  much 
larger  that  it  more  than  offsets  the  higher  cost  of  their  feed.  They 
therefore  produce  milk  and  butter  fat  much  more  cheaply  than  the 
poorer  cows. 

3  Compiled   in  U.   S.   Dept.   Agr.,   Bur.   of   Anim.   Indus.,   Bui.    164. 


250  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

The  relative  profits  from  good  and  poor  producers  are  well  sliown 
by  trials  at  the  Connecticut  (Storrs)  Station*  where  for  5  years  the 
cost  of  feed  and  the  yield  of  milk  and  fat  for  the  5  best  and  the  5 
poorest  cows  in  the  Station  herd  were  compared.  The  average  annual 
cost  of  feed  for  the  best  cows  was  $57.81  per  head,  over  $8  more  than 
for  the  poorest  cows.  But  the  best  cows  averaged  360  lbs.  of  butter 
fat  per  year  and  returned  $39.67  each  over  the  cost  of  feed,  while  the 
poorest  cows  averaged  215  lbs.  of  fat  and  returned  only  $7.44  over 
the  cost  of  the  feed.  The  feed-cost  of  1  lb.  of  fat  was  23.6  cents 
with  the  poorest  cows,  and  but  16.2  cents  with  the  best  ones.  The  com- 
parison would  be  even  more  striking  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that 
these  "poorest  cows"  were  really  better  producers  than  the  average 
cows  on  American  farms.  For  the  first  two  years  of  the  trial  the  5 
poorest  cows  did  not  pay  for  their  feed,  but  by  gradual  selection  the 
herd  was  so  improved  that  during  the  last  year  the  5  poorest  cows 
returned  $17.67,  on  the  average,  above  the  cost  of  feed. 

Weed  out  unprofitable  cows. — Even  in  the  leading  dairy  states, 
probably  one-fourth  or  more  of  the  dairy  cows  fail  to  pay  for  their 
care  and  feed,  due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  the  owners  do  not  know 
which  return  a  profit  and  which  are  "boarders."  Tho  good  pro- 
ducers are  usually  of  the  dairy  type  and  poor  producers  are  not,  even 
experts  are  often  unable  to  tell  from  appearance  whether  a  cow  is 
profitable  or  not.  The  only  reliable  way  of  finding  this  out  is  from 
records  of  the  actual  amount  of  milk  and  fat  she  yields. 

Fortunately,  such  records  may  now  be  easily  secured  by  the  use  of 
the  milk  scales  and  the  Babcock  fat  test.  Knowing  the  production  of 
each  cow  and  the  approximate  amount  of  feed  she  has  consumed  in  a 
given  period,  the  dairyman  can  discard  the  unprofitable  animals,  and 
gradually  build  up  a  herd  of  high  producers  at  small  expense  by  using 
a  bred-for-production  sire  and  keeping  all  heifer  calves  from  the  best 
cows.  By  this  means  the  average  yield  of  fat  for  the  herd  can  be 
gradually  increased  year  by  year,  until  it  is  raised  to  250  lbs.,  later 
to  300  lbs.,  and  then  even  higher.  As  good  cows  sometimes  have  "off 
years"  in  production,  animals  should  not  be  discarded  after  a  single 
year's  trial  if  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  they  will  do  better  in  the 
future. 

Keeping  records  of  production. — The  most  satisfactory  way  to  find 
out  the  value  of  each  cow  is  to  weigh  and  record  each  milking  from 
every  animal.  This  does  not  require  much  work,  if  a  convenient 
spring  balance  and  handy  milk  sheets  for  entry  of  the  records  are 
provided.  For  determining  the  fat  content  of  the  milk,  it  is  sufficient 
to  take  a  sample  covering  3  to  5  days  of  each  month.     Reasonably  ac- 

*  Beach,  Conn.    (Storrs)   Bui.  29. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  DAIRY  COWS  251 

curate  records  may  be  obtained  by  weighing  and  sampling  the  milk 
of  each  cow  regularly  on  3  consecutive  days  each  month  thruout  the 
year.  The  average  yield  of  milk  and  fat  for  this  period  is  taken  as 
the  average  for  the  month.  Another  method  of  less  value,  but  better 
than  no  testing,  is  to  record  the  production  of  each  cow  for  7  con- 
secutive days  at  intervals  of  3  months.  Tests  covering  only  a  week 
or  even  a  month  of  the  year  are  unreliable,  for  cows  differ  widely  in 
persistence  of  milk  yield.  A  cow  which  gives  a  good  flow  of  milk  for 
a  time  but  goes  dry  relatively  soon  may  be  much  less  profitable  than  a 
persistent  milker  that  never  yields  as  much  fat  in  any  one  week  as 
does  the  first  cow. 

Cow-testing  associations.— The  remarkable  development  of  dairy- 
ing in  the  Scandinavian  countries  of  northern  Europe  has  been  largely 
due  to  the  work  of  cow-testing  associations.  In  these  organizations  a 
trained  tester  is  employed,  who  spends  a  day  every  month  with  each 
of  the  herds  in  the  association.  Arriving  on  the  farm  in  the  after- 
noon he  weighs  and  samples  the  milk  from  each  cow  at  milking  time. 
He  furthermore  weighs  the  concentrates  given  each  cow  and  also  the 
roughage  which  several  get  and  then  estimates  the  approximate 
amount  given  to  each  cow  in  the  herd.  The  following  morning  this 
is  repeated,  after  which  the  samples  of  milk  are  tested  for  butter  fat. 
From  this  day's  record  he  computes  the  milk  and  fat  production  and 
cost  of  feed  for  each  cow  for  the  current  month.  While  such  records 
are  not  as  exact  as  if  every  milking  were  weighed,  careful  studies  have 
shown  the  results  to  be  within  2  per  et.  of  the  actual  production  of 
the  cow.  The  tester  also  studies  the  local  feed  market  and  aids  the 
dairyman  in  working  out  economical  rations.  Many  dairymen  who 
would  not  test  their  herds  themselves  are  glad  to  secure  this  service 
at  small  expense  as  a  member  of  the  association.  The  improvement 
wrought  by  these  associations  is  marvelous.  In  Denmark,  largely  due 
to  their  work,  the  average  annual  yield  of  butter  per  cow  has  increased 
from  112  lbs.  in  1884  to  224  lbs.  in  1908.  Cow-testing  associations  are 
now  increasing  rapidly  in  the  United  States  and  have  already  accom- 
plished much  good.  The  first  association  in  this  country  was  organ- 
ized in  Michigan  in  1905.  During  the  first  8  years  the  average  yield 
of  butter  fat  per  cow  in  7  herds  which  had  been  in  the  association  from 
the  beginning,  was  increased  from  231.1  to  284.7  lbs.,  and  the  average 
net  returns  over  cost  of  feed  were  more  than  doubled. 

Official  tests  and  advanced  registry  of  dairy  cows. — The  estab- 
lishment by  the  dairy  breed  associations  of  advanced  registers  for 
pure-bred  cows  is  another  important  development  of  the  dairy  indus- 
try. Cows  are  entitled  to  advanced  registry  only  when  their  yield  in 
tests  conducted  by  representatives  of  the  state  experiment  stations  or 


252  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

of  the  breed  associations  has  reached  a  standard  set  by  the  association. 
Entry  in  these  registers  increases  the  money  value,  not  onl}^  of  the 
given  cow,  but  also  of  her  relatives,  for  progressive  breeders  in  buy- 
ing animals  now  rely  more  and  more  on  records  of  production  and 
less  upon  show-ring  successes. 

Records  of  great  cows. — Thru  skilled  breeding  combined  with 
expert  feeding,  truly  marvelous  records  of  dairy  production  have 
been  secured.  The  world's  records  have  been  steadily  raised  during 
recent  years  until  now  Duchess  Skylark  Ormsby,  a  5-year-old,  pure- 
bred Holstein,  has  produced  1,205.09  lbs.  of  butter  fat  in  a  single  year, 
and  Tilly  Alcartra,  another  Holstein,  holds  the  record  for  milk  pro- 
duction, with  30,451.4  lbs.  of  milk  to  her  credit  in  one  year  when  a 
5-year-old.  These  records,  thought  impossible  a  few  years  ago,  show 
how  far  the  breeding  and  feeding  of  dairy  cows  has  advanced. 

II.    Factors  Influencing  the  Composition  and  Yield  of  Milk 

Composition  of  milk. — The  milk  of  different  breeds  of  cows  and 
even  of  individual  cows  of  the  same  breed  varies  quite  widely  in  com- 
position. While  the  fat  content  may  range  from  less  than  3  per  ct. 
to  7  per  ct.  or  over,  there  is  much  less  range  in  the  other  constituents. 
The  milk  sugar  commonly  ranges  from  4  to  5  per  ct.,  the  casein  from 
2  to  3  per  ct.,  the  albumin  from  0.4  to  0.9  per  ct.,  and  the  mineral 
matter  from  0.6  to  0.9  per  ct. 

The  average  composition  of  milk  from  the  different  breeds  is  shown 
in  the  following  table:  ^ 

Composition  of  milk  of  different  hreeds 

Breed  Total    solids  Fat 

Per  et.  Per  ct. 

Jersey    14.70  5.35 

Guernsey   ' 14.71  5.16 

Devon     14.50  4.60 

Shorthorn    13.38  4.05 

Brown  Swiss    13.27  4.24 

Ayrshire    12.61  3.06 

Holstein-Friesian     11.85  3.42 

The  Jerseys  and  Guernseys  give  the  richest,  and  Ayrshires  and 
Holstein-Friesians  the  poorest,  milk.  However,  the  breeds  which 
give  the  richest  milk  usually  yield  a  smaller  quantity,  so  that  the 
total  amount  of  fat  and  total  solids  is  nearly  the  same  for  all  dairy 
breeds.  Not  only  does  the  composition  of  milk  depend  on  the  breed 
but  it  is  also  influenced  by  the  several  factors  discussed  in  the  fol- 
lowing paragraphs. 

5  Chiefly  from  Wing,  Milk  and  Its  Products,  p.  33. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  DAIRY  COWS  253 

Influence  of  individuality.— Cows  of  the  same  breed  differ  one  from 
another,  both  in  the  amount  of  milk  they  produce  and  in  its  composi- 
tion, especially  the  percentage  of  fat.  Indeed,  cows  of  the  same  breed 
may  yield  milk  differing-  as  much  in  fat  percentage  as  the  average 
differences  between  the  several  breeds.  The  milk  from  an  individual 
cow  may  also  vary  considerably  in  fat  percentage  from  day  to  day, 
due  to  changes  in  health,  change  of  milkers,  excitement,  variations  in 
weather,  and,  in  small  degree,  to  changes  in  feed. 

First  and  last  drawn  milk.— The  first  milk  drawn  from  the  udder 
is  very  poor  in  fat,  each  succeeding  portion  increasing  in  richness. 
In  a  trial  at  the  New  York  (Geneva)  Station  ^  the  first  portion  of  milk 
drawn  from  a  Guernsey  cow  contained  but  0.76  per  ct.  fat ;  the  second, 
2.60  per  ct. ;  the  third,  5.35  per  ct. ;  and  the  last  9.80  per  ct.  The 
percentages  of  casein  and  albumin  vary  but  little,  decreasing  slightly 
as  the  milk  becomes  richer  in  fat. 

Effect  of  period  between  milMngs. — When  the  intervals  of  time 
between  milkings  are  unequal,  cows  generally  yield  a  smaller  amount 
of  milk  after  the  shorter  period,  but  this  milk  is  slightly  richer  in  fat 
and  total  solids.  For  this  reason  the  evening  milk  is  usually  richer 
than  that  drawn  in  the  morning.  AA^here  the  intervals  are  equal  there 
is  no  regular  difference  in  quality  with  cows  milked  twice  a  day. 
When  they  are  milked  3  times  daily  the  mid-day  milking  is  usually 
the  richest. 

Effect  of  age. — The  richness  of  milk  yielded  by  cows  remains  prac- 
tically constant  until  after  the  third  lactation  period,  after  which 
there  is  a  slow,  gradual  decline  in  fat  percentage.  The  total  yield 
of  milk  and  fat  by  a  heifer  normally  increases  until  she  is  5  years  old. 
A  2-year-old  may  be  expected  to  give  about  70  per  ct.  as  much  milk 
and  fat  as  when  mature,  a  3-year-old  about  80  per  ct.,  and  a  4-year- 
old  about  90  per  ct.  A  cow  may  make  her  best  record  when  10  or  II 
years  old,  altho  she  usually  does  her  best  somewhat  earlier.  Cows 
that  breed  regularly,  usually  show  no  marked  decline  in  yield  until 
at  least  12  years  old.^ 

Effect  of  advancing"  lactation. — For  a  few  weeks  after  freshening 
cows  usually  give  somewhat  richer  milk  than  during  the  following 
month  or  two.  The  fat  percentage  then  remains  fairly  constant  until 
toward  the  close  of  the  lactation  period,  when  it  gradually  increases. 
The  most  marked  effect  of  advancing  lactation  is  upon  the  yield  of 
milk.  In  well-managed  herds  the  normal  monthly  shrinkage  in  milk 
flow  is  about  as  follows:  From  the  second  to  the  seventh  month  the 
shrinkage  varies  irregularly,  ranging  from  4  to  9  per  ct.  per  month, 

6  Van  Slyke,  Jour.  Am.  Chem.  Soc,  30,  p.   1173. 

7  Eckles,   Dairy  Cattle   and  Milk  Production,   p.    153. 


254  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

based  on  the  yield  of  the  -given  cow  for  the  previous  month.  The 
average  monthly  decrease  during  this  period  is  about  6  to  7  per  et. 
After  this  the  decrease  becomes  more  rapid,  being  9  to  11  per  ct.  for 
the  eighth  month,  12  to  18  per  ct.  for  the  ninth  mouth,  and  12  to  23 
per  ct.  for  the  tenth  month,  after  which  the  cows  are  generally  dried 
oft".  The  farther  advanced  a  cow  is  in  lactation,  the  larger  is  the 
amount  of  feed  required  for  100  lbs.  of  milk  or  fat. 

Influence  of  condition  at  calving. — When  a  good  dairy  cow  calves 
in  a  fat  condition  she  will  often  yield  milk  containing  1  to  2  per  ct. 
more  fat  than  normal,  losing  markedly  in  weight  meanwhile.^  This 
is  due  to  her  strong  dairy  temperament,  which  impels  her  to  withdraw 
fat  from  her  body  and  put  it  into  her  milk.  The  yearly  yield  of  fat 
may  thus  be  increased  by  having  cows  calve  in  good  condition.  Also, 
when  a  cow  calves  in  high  condition,  a  seven-day  record  of  fat  produc- 
tion secured  shortly  after  calving  is  no  index  to  her  ability  as  a  long- 
time producer.  Yearly  records  are  therefore  far  more  reliable  guides 
to  the  value  of  dairy  cows. 

Influence  of  feed  on  richness  of  milk. — Until  recent  years  it  was 
believed  that  milk  varied  in  percentage  of  fat  from  milking  to  milk- 
ing, according  to  the  daily  feed  and  care  the  cow  received.  We  now 
know  that  if  the  cow  receives  sufficient  nutrients  to  maintain  her  body 
weight,  the  percentage  of  fat  can  not  be  materially  altered  for  any  long 
period  of  time  by  greater  or  less  liberality  of  feeding  or  by  supplying 
any  particular  kind  of  feed.  Cows  starved  or  greatly  under-fed  may 
produce  milk  somewhat  poorer  in  fat  than  normal.  In  some  experi- 
ments adding  to  the  ration  palm-nut  meal,  cocoanut  meal,  or  fats, 
such  as  cottonseed  oil,  linseed  oil,  or  corn  oil,  has  slightly  increased 
the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk  for  2  or  3  weeks,  after  which  it  again 
became  normal.  In  other  cases,  feeding  fat  did  not  even  temporarily 
increase  the  richness  of  the  milk.  Conflicting  results  have  also  been 
secured  in  trials  where  cows  were  fed  more  protein  than  actually  re- 
quired for  body  maintenance  and  milk  production.  Even  where  im- 
provement resulted  from  feeding  a  large  amount  of  protein,  the  rich- 
ness of  the  milk  was  increased  by  only  one  or  two-tenths  of  one 
per  ct. 

The  Jersey  cow  gives  milk  relatively  rich  in  fat,  and  the  Holstein 
milk  that  is  relatively  low  in  fat.  No  kind  of  feed  or  care  will  cause 
the  Jersey  to  give  milk  like  that  of  the  Holstein,  or  the  reverse.  Were 
a  piece  of  skin,  clothed  with  yellow  hair,  taken  from  the  body  of  a  Jer- 
sey cow  and  grafted  on  the  body  of  a  Holstein  cow,  we  should  expect 
the  grafted  portion  to  continue  growing  yellow,  Jersey -like  hair.  In 
the  same  way,  were  it  possible  to  graft  the  udder  of  a  Jersey  cow 

sWoll,  Wis.  Rpts.   1902,  p.   117;    1903,  p.   115;   Eckles,  Mo.   Bui.    100. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  DAIRY  COWS 


255 


on  to  the  body  of  a  Holstein,  we  would  then  expect  the  Holstein  to  give 
Jersey-like  milk.  It  is  not  the  feed,  nor  the  body,  nor  the  digestive 
tract  of  the  cow,  but  the  glands  of  her  udder,  which  determine  the 
characteristics  of  the  milk  yielded  by  each  individual.  After  all,  this 
is  what  we  should  expect,  for  if  milk  varied  with  every  slight  change 
of  food  and  condition,  the  life  of  the  young,  dependent  on  such  milk, 
would  be  in  constant  jeopardy. 

While  the  kind  of  feed  given  the  cow  does  not  materially  change  the 
percentage  of  fat  in  her  milk,  in  some  cases  it  does  alter  the  character 
or  nature  of  the  fat.     The  fat  of  milk  is  composed  of  several  kinds 

USE   OF   FEED   BY   COWS 

LIBERAL  RATION  FED  TO 
GOOD  DAIRY  COW 

THREE-FOURTHS  RATION 


HALF  RATION 


LIBERAL  RATION  FED  TO 
BEEF  COW 

FOR   MAINTENANCE      FOR   MILK        FOB  GAIN 
PRODUCTION    IN  WEIGHT 

Fig.  72. — It  Pays  to  Feed  Good  Dairy  Cows  Liberally 

When  fed  liberally  a  good  dairy  cow  can  use  half  her  feed  for  milk  production. 
When  fed  a  three-fourths  ration  she  can  use  only  one-third  of  her  feed  for  pro- 
ducing milk,  and  when  fed  a  half-ration  she  needs  all  her  feed  to  maintain  her 
body.  A  heef  cow,  if  fed  a  liberal  ration,  will  turn  part  of  her  surplus  feed  into 
fat  instead  of  milk.      (After  Van  Norman.) 


of  fat — palmitin,  olein,  stearin,  butyrin,  etc.  When  a  cow  is  given 
feeds  rich  in  vegetable  oils  (which  contain  much  olein),  the  milk  fat 
will  then  contain  more  olein  than  normal.  This  usually  tends  to 
make  the  butter  softer,  for  olein  is  a  liquid  fat,  but  in  some  instances 
this  tendency  is  offset  by  still  other  changes  in  the  composition  of 
the  fat.  Cottonseed  and  cocoanut  meal  produce  firm,  hard  butter. 
A  change  from  dry  feed  to  pasture  generally  produces  fat  higher  in 
olein,  resulting  in  softer  butter. 

Influence  of  feed  on  yield  of  product.— Tho  the  kind  and  amount 
of  feed  do  not  materially  affect  the  richness  of  the  milk,  the  amount 
of  milk  a  cow  will  yield,  and  hence  the  total  yield  of  fat,  depends  on 
her  feed  and  care,  until  her  full  capacity  for  milk  production  is 


256  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

reached.  The  typical  beef  cow  usually  has  a  very  limited  capacity 
for  producing  milk  and  yields  only  sufficient  for  her  calf,  even  tho 
her  feed  be  abundant.  Any  surplus  of  nutrients  is  stored  in  her 
body  as  fat.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  well-bred  dairy  cow  the  im- 
pulse to  produce  milk  is  so  strong  that  with  abundant  and  suitable 
feed  and  good  care  she  yields  much  more  milk  than  her  calf  requires. 

Many  dairymen  make  the  serious  mistake  of  failing  to  supply  good 
dairy  cows  with  sufficient  feed  for  the  most  economical  production  of 
milk.  As  shown  in  Figure  72,  a  good  dairy  cow  fed  a  liberal  ration 
requires  about  half  her  feed  to  maintain  her  body  and  uses  the  other 
half  to  make  milk.  If  she  receives  less  feed,  the  proportion  which 
she  can  use  to  produce  milk  will  be  decreased.  For  example,  if  fed 
three-fourths  of  a  full  ration,  she  can  use  only  one-third  of  what 
she  eats  to  make  milk.  Should  she  be  fed  but  half  of  a  full  ration, 
she  will  still  need  as  much  as  before  to  maintain  her  body  and  no 
feed  will  remain  for  milk  production.  Any  milk  she  then  yields 
would  be  made  by  robbing  her  body  of  nutrients.  The  true  dairy 
cow  thus  produces  milk  most  economically  when  fed  a  liberal  ration, 
while  a  cow  of  beef  type  or  one  lacking  in  dairy  temperament,  when 
liberally  fed,  will  store  a  considerable  part  of  the  food  nutrients  in 
her  body  as  fat,  instead  of  turning  them  into  milk.  A  safe  rule  is 
to  feed  such  a  cow  only  what  she  will  eat  without  gaining  in  weight. 

The  increase  in  production  due  to  good  feed  and  care  is  shown  in  a 
striking  manner  by  a  trial  at  the  New  York  (Cornell)  Station."  A 
herd  of  cows  poorly  fed  and  cared  for  by  their  owner,  was  taken 
from  a  farm  to  the  Station  where  they  were  liberally  fed  for  2  years. 
Then  the  cows  were  returned  to  their  owner  and  fed  by  him  as  be- 
fore. During  the  time  the  cow^s  were  at  the  Station  they  gave  42 
per  ct.  more  milk  and  51  per  ct.  more  fat  than  when  with  the  farmer. 

Turning  to  pasture;  temperature;  weather. — AVhen  cows  are 
turned  from  wdnter  stables  to  spring  pastures  usually  both  the  yield 
of  milk  and  its  richness  are  slightly  increased,  but  after  2  to  4  weeks 
the  percentage  of  fat  falls  to  normal.  Especially  when  the  grass  is 
soft  and  lush,  cows  lose  in  weight  for  a  short  time  when  first  turned 
to  pasture. 

The  tendency  is  for  cows  to  give  richer  milk  when  the  temperature 
falls  and  poorer  milk  as  it  rises,  and  so  they  generally  yield  slightly 
poorer  milk  in  summer  than  in  winter.  Cows  exposed  to  cold  rains 
shrink  in  milk  flow  and  may  yield  milk  poor  in  fat. 

Exercise  and  grooming. — Moderate  exercise  tends  to  increase  the 
yield  of  milk  and  the  richness  of  all  constituents  except  casein,  while 
too  much  exercise  decreases  the  yield  and  injures  the  quality  of  the 

owing  and  Foord,  N.  Y.    (Cornell)    Bui.  222. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  DAIRY  COWS  257 

milk.  In  some  trials  grooming  increased  the  flow  of  milk  4  to  8  per 
ct.  while  in  others  where  the  ungroomed  cows  were  not  allowed  to 
become  filthy,  it  brought  no  increase.  Tho  grooming  may  not  in- 
crease the  yield  of  milk,  it  does  improve  its  quality  by  lessening  the 
number  of  bacteria  contained  and  may  improve  the  health  of  the 
animals. 

Milking  machines. — Because  of  the  difficulty  of  securing  efficient 
hand  milkers,  the  use  of  milking  machines  is  certain  to  increase. 
Several  types  of  machines  have  now  been  greatly  improved  and  long- 
continued  trials  at  various  stations  show  that  when  cows  are  milked 
with  the  best  machines  by  careful  operators  and  with  well-adjusted 
teat  cups  there  is  no  injurious  effect  on  the  yield  or  quality  of  the 
milk,  or  on  the  health  of  the  animals.  While  with  most  cows  the 
machine  does  not  draw  quite  all  the  milk  from  the  udder  and  it  is 
necessary  to  strip  by  hand,  considerable  time  is  saved  by  machine 
milking.  When  the  machines  are  properly  cleansed  and  the  rub- 
ber tubing  kept  in  an  antiseptic  solution,  the  sanitary  condition  of 
the  milk  is  improved  over  that  ordinarily  obtained  by  hand  milking. 
Owing  to  the  first  cost  of  the  machines  and  the  .labor  involved  in  their 
operation  and  cleansing,  various  authorities  consider  machine  milk- 
ing economical  under  usual  conditions  only  where  at  least  15  to  30 
cows  are  milked  thruout  the  year. 

Regularity  and  kindness. — For  the  best  results  with  dairy  cows, 
as  with  other  farm  animals,  they  should  be  treated  with  kindness  at 
all  times,  and  regularity  in  feeding  and  care  should  be  observed. 
The  highest  yielding  cows  are  usually  of  nervous  temperament,  and, 
especially  with  such  animals,  excitement  usually  causes  a  sharp  de- 
crease in  yield.  Cows  being  driven  should  not  be  hurried  and  at- 
tendants should  never  strike  or  otherwise  abuse  them.  Good  dairy- 
men now  realize  the  fact  brought  to  public  attention  by  W.  D. 
Hoard  of  Wisconsin  that  dairying  is  based  on  the  maternity  of  the 
cow,  and  treat  their  animals  accordingly.  As  Haecker  writes,"  "If 
you  so  handle  the  cows  that  they  are  fond  of  you,  you  have  learned 
one  of  the  most  important  lessons  that  lead  to  profitable  dairying. 
...  A  cow's  affection  for  the  calf  prompts  the  desire  to  give  it  milk; 
if  you  gain  her  aff^ection  she  will  desire  to  give  you  milk." 

While  milking  is  usually  regarded  as  a  simple  task  which  anyone 
can  do,  there  may  be  a  great  difference  in  the  returns  which  different 
milkers  get  from  the  same  cow.  A  cow  should  be  milked  quietly 
with  the  dry  hand,  and  stripped  out  thoroly,  the  milker  bearing 
in  mind  that  the  last-drawn  milk  carries  about  10  times  as  much  fat 
as  that  drawn  first. 

10  Minn.  Bui.  130. 


258  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Minor  points. — Dehorning  cows  causes  a  small  temporary  decrease 
in  milk  flow  but  is  repaid  a  hundred  fold  in  the  greater  comfort  of 
the  herd  thereafter.  Subjecting  cows  to  the  tuberculin  test  has 
practically  no  effect  on  the  yield  of  milk  or  fat.  Tho  milking  three 
times  a  day  may  cause  a  slightly  larger  flow  of  milk,  it  is  not  profit- 
able except  with  very  heavy  milkers  and  cows  on  official  test. 

Flavor,  odor,  and  color. — The  flavor  and  odor  of  milk  and  its 
products  are  highly  important.  Due  to  minute  quantities  of  volatile 
oils  they  contain,  onions,  leeks,  turnips,  rape,  etc.,  give  an  objec- 
tionable flavor  to  milk,  unless  fed  immediately  after  milking  so  that 
the  volatile  oils  may  escape  from  the  body  before  the  next  milking. 
When  cows  are  first  turned  to  pasture,  we  at  once  note  a  grass  flavor 
in  the  milk  and  butter,  which  soon  disappears  or  which  we  fail  to 
notice  later. 

Experiments  at  the  Missouri  Station  ^^  show  that  the  yellow  color 
of  butter  fat  is  due  to  a  substance  called  carotin,  so  named  because  it 
is  the  same  coloring  matter  found  in  the  carrot.  Cows  can  not  make 
this  coloring  matter  in  their  body  but  secure  it  from  feeds  which 
contain  it.  The  yellowness  of  cream  and  butter  in  summer  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  green  feeds  are  rich  in  carotin,  tho  we  can  not  see  it 
because  the  green  chlorophyll  masks  its  color.  Bright  green  hay 
and  yellow  roots  also  contain  much  carotin,  while  most  concentrates 
and  dry  roughages  are  poor  in  this  coloring  matter. 

Butter  and  cream  from  Guernsey  and  Jersey  cows  is  yellower  than 
that  from  other  breeds,  not  because  these  cows  can  manufacture 
carotin,  but  because  they  can  transfer  to  their  milk  a  larger  part  of 
the  carotin  in  their  feed.  They  also  store  the  yellow  carotin  in  their 
body  fat,  in  winter  transferring  some  of  it  to  their  milk. 

III.     Feeding  for  Milk  Production 

Imitate  pasture  conditions  the  year  around. — Every  daiiyman 
knows  that  his  herd  normally  reaches  maximum  production  when  on 
luxuriant  pasture  in  late  spring  or  early  summer.  As  Eckles  points 
out,^-  to  secure  the  largest  yield  during  the  other  months  of  the  year 
the  following  summer  conditions  should  be  imitated  as  closely  as 
possible:  (1)  An  abundance  of  feed;  (2)  a  balanced  ration;  (3)  suc- 
culent feed;  (4)  palatable  feed;  (5)  a  moderate  temperature;  (6) 
comfortable  surroundings;  (7)  reasonable  exercise.  Upon  the  ability 
of  the  dairyman  to  maintain  these  favorable  conditions  for  his  herd 
thruout  the  year,  depend  in  large  measure  his  profits. 

11  Palmer  and  Eckles,  Mo.   Res.  Buls.   9,   10,    11,   12;    also   Cir.   74. 

12  Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,   p.  257. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  DAIRY  COWS 


259 


The  proper  concentrate  allowance. — A  good  dairy  cow  in  full 
flow  of  milk  is  expending  fully  as  much  energy  as  a  horse  at  hard 
work,  and  hence  should  not  be  expected  to  get  all  her  nourishment 
from  roughages,  even  if  of  good  quality.  How  much  concentrates 
to  feed  is  a  question  of  great  economic  importance  to  dairymen,  for 
in  most  eases  roughages  are  the  cheap  and  concentrates  the  costly 
part  of  the  ration.  The  amount  of  concentrates  advisable  depends 
first  on  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  roughages  furnished ;  and 
second,    on    the    productive    capacity    of    the    cows.     For    the    most 


Fig.  73. — Imitate  Summer  Conditions  the  Year  Round 

The  most  successful  dairymen  imitate  summer  conditions  as  closely  as  possible 
during  the  rest  of  the  year. 


economical  production  and  the  largest  profit,  cows  of  good  dairy 
temperament  should  generally  receive  at  least  6  to  8  lbs.  of  concen- 
trates, in  addition  to  all  the  good  roughage,  such  as  legume  hay  and 
corn  silage,  that  they  will  consume.  Exceptional  producers  can  use 
more  concentrates  with  profit,  but,  if  concentrates  are  high-priced, 
cows  of  only  low  productive  capacity  may  not  pay  for  any  grain  in 
addition  to  good  legume  hay  and  corn  silage.  The  dairyman  who 
persists  in  giving  his  cows  only  such  low  grade  roughages  as  tim- 
othy hay,  corn  stover,  etc.,  must  pay  the  penalty  by  feeding  them 


260 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


from  10  to  12  lbs.  of  expensive  concentrates  daily  to  secure  a  reason- 
able flow  of  milk. 

Cows  should  be  fed  individually. — Even  when  fed  liberally,  cows 
of  marked  dairy  temperament  rarely  lay  on  flesh  when  in  full  flow 

of  milk,  provided  their  ration  is 
well  balanced.  But  cows  of  ordi- 
nary capacitj^  may  easily  be  over- 
fed, in  w'hich  case  they  lay  on  fat 
instead  of  increasing  their  milk 
production.  Since  even  in  well- 
bred  and  well-selected  herds  the 
different  cows  vary  widely  in  pro- 
ductive ability,  to  secure  the  most 
profit  they  must  be  fed  as  individ- 
uals, instead  of  giving  both  high 
and  low  producers  the  same  ration. 
It  is  not  necessary,  hoAvever,  to 
compute  a  balanced  ration  for  each 
animal.  All  that  is  needed  is  to 
determine  what  amounts  and  pro- 
portions of  roughages  and  concen- 
trates should  be  used  to  make  the 
most  economical  ration  that  meets 
the  requirements  for  the  average 
cows  in  the  herd,  after  the  man- 
ner shown  in  Chapters  VII  and 
YIII.  For  example,  the  ration  on 
Page  110  meets  the  average  require- 
ments for  cows  producing  30  lbs. 
of  3.5  per  ct.  milk  daily.  In  feed- 
ing the  herd,  each  cow  should  be  given  all  the  roughage  she  will  eat, 
which  will  usually  be  about  2  lbs.  of  dry  roughage  daily  per  100  lbs. 
live  weight,  or  1  lb.  of  dry  roughage  and  3  lbs.  of  silage.  Then  the 
amount  of  concentrates  for  each  cow  may  be  determined  from  one  of 
the  following  rules : 


Tig.  74. — The  milk  scales  and  the 
Babcock  test  enable  the  dairjinan  to 
weed  out  the  unprofitable  cows  and 
to  feed  his  good  cows  individually 
in  proportion  to  their  production. 
(From  Wisconsin  Station.) 


1.  Feed  1  lb.  of  concentrates  per  day  for  each  pound  of  butter  fat  the  cow 
produces  per  week,  or 

2.  Feed  1  lb.  of  concentrates  per  day  for  each  3  to  4  lbs.  of  milk,  depending 
on  its  richness,  or 

3.  Feed  as  much  as  the  cow  will  pay  for  at  the  ruling  prices  for  feeds  and 
products,  increasing  the  allowance  gradually  until  she  fails  to  respond  by  an 
increase  in  production  which  will  cover  the  increase  in  cost. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  DAIRY  COWS  261 

The  first  2  rules  apply  only  when  abundant  roughage  of  good 
quality  is  supplied.  Heavy  producers  require  a  narrower  nutritive 
ratio  than  ordinary  animals,  and  hence  it  may  be  advisable  to  alter 
the  character  of  the  concentrate  mixture  for  them.  It  is  also  wise 
to  feed  a  more  nitrogenous  concentrate  allowance  to  cows  showing  a 
tendency  to  fatten,  while  those  losing  flesh  should  receive  a  larger 
proportion  of  the  carbonaceous  concentrates,  such  as  the  farm-grown 
grains.  Since  heifers  in  milk  are  still  growing  in  addition  to  giving 
milk,  they  should  be  fed  more  liberally  than  mature  cows  yielding 
the  same  amount  of  milk. 

Feeding  concentrates  on  pasture. — The  economy  of  feeding  con- 
centrates to  cows  on  good  pasture  depends  on  tbe  relative  cost  of 
pasturage  and  concentrates,  the  price  secured  for  dairy  products, 
and  the  productive  capacity  of  the  cows.  While  the  animal  giving 
only  an  average  quantity  of  milk  may  not  pay  for  such  addition,  the 
heavy-yielding  cow  can  not  long  continue  her  high  production  with- 
out some  concentrates,  unless  the  pasture  be  unusually  luxuriant. 
Eckles  ^^  concludes  that  a  Jersey  giving  20  lbs.  or  a  Holstein  yielding 
25  lbs.  of  milk  or  more  daily,  should  be  fed  some  concentrates  on 
pasture,  the  amount  being  left  to  the  business  judgment  of  the  dairy- 
man. Feeding  a  moderate  amount  of  concentrates  on  pasture  is 
often  advisable,  even  when  it  does  not  increase  the  yield  enough  to 
return  an  immediate  profit,  for  the  cows  are  kept  in  better  condition 
and  will  yield  more  the  following  months.  This  is  especially  true 
with  heifers  which  are  still  growing  and  require  liberal  feed  in  order 
to  reach  full  development. 

Supplementing  short  pasture. — It  is  of  great  importance  that  ad- 
ditional feed  be  given  daiiy  cows  when  pastures  become  parched  and 
scant  in  midsummer.  Otherwise,  the  milk  flow  will  surely  decrease, 
and  even  should  the  pastures  improve  later,  the  cows  can  not  be 
brought  back  to  their  normal  flow  of  milk.  Corn  or  sorghum  silage 
usually  furnishes  the  cheapest  feed  for  this  purpose,  but  where  this 
is  not  available  soiling  crops  should  be  specially  grown. 

The  ration  should  be  properly  balanced. — Because  milk  is  rich  in 
protein  and  mineral  matter,  especially  lime  and  phosphorus,  the 
ration  of  the  dairy  cow  should  contain  an  ample  supply  of  these 
nutrients.  (See  Chapter  VI.)  Fortunately,  legume  hay  is  rich  in 
all  these  constituents,  which  explains  its  high  value  for  milk  produc- 
tion. As  pointed  out  in  Chapter  VIII,  the  amount  of  protein  it  will 
pay  to  feed  depends  on  the  relative  prices  of  protein-rich  and  car- 
bonaceous feeds.  Even  when  the  former  are  high  in  price,  the  pro- 
tein allowance  should  not  fall  far  below  the   minimum   shown   in 

13  Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,  p.  256. 


262  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Appendix  Table  V.  In  districts  where  protein-rich  feeds  are  the 
cheapest,  cows  have  been  fed  rations  as  narrow  as  1:4  without 
harm. 

Succulent  and  palatable  feed. — Numerous  trials  have  shown  the 
importance  of  providing  succulent  feed,  either  corn  silage  or  roots, 
for  winter  feeding  to  take  the  place  of  summer  pasture.  The  value 
of  succulence  is  due  in  no  small  measure  to  its  beneficial  laxative 
effect  and  to  its  palatability,  which  undoubtedly  tends  to  stimulate 
digestion.  Not  only  should  succulent  feed  be  supplied,  but  the  rest 
of  the  ration  for  cows  yielding  a  good  flow  of  milk  should  be  as 
palatable  as  possible.  Such  roughages  as  timothy  hay,  straw,  and 
corn  stover  may  be  used  in  limited  amount,  but  should  not  form  the 
chief  roughage.  Concentrates  not  relished  when  fed  alone  may  be 
mixed  with  well-liked  feed.  The  concentrate  allowance  should  be 
composed  of  two  or  more  feeds,  for  a  mixture  is  relished  better  than 
a  single  kind  of  grain  or  roughage.  It  is  also  well  to  feed  at  least 
two  kinds  of  roughage. 

Shelter  and  comfort. — In  wdnter,  the  steer,  gorged  with  feed  and 
every  day  adding  to  the  heat-holding  layer  of  fat  just  beneath  the 
skin,  prefers  the  yard  or  open  shed  to  the  stable.  The  dairy  cow 
stands  in  strong  contrast,  her  system  being  severely  taxed  thru  the 
annual  drain  of  maternity  and  the  daily  loss  of  milk.  The  cow  should 
be  comfortably  housed  in  a  well-lighted,  well-ventilated  stable,  hav- 
ing a  temperature  ranging  from  40°  to  50°  F.  in  winter.  To  preserve 
the  health  of  the  herd  as  Avell  as  for  sanitary  reasons,  it  is  advisable 
to  have  not  less  than  4  square  feet  of  window  glass  for  each  animal. 
It  is  well  to  disinfect  the  stable  thoroly  at  least  once  a  year,  to  check 
any  possible  spread  of  disease.  As  the  dairy  cow  is  a  sensitive, 
nervous  animal  the  wise  dairyman  will  provide  comfortable  stalls  or 
swinging  stanchions,  and  see  that  the  cows  are  well  bedded. 

Water. — Cows  in  milk  require  about  100  lbs.,  or  12.5  gallons,  of 
water  per  head  daily,  and  heavy  yielding  cow^s  even  more.  As  cows 
are  creatures  of  habit,  those  of  ordinary  productive  capacity  will 
have  their  needs  supplied  if  once  each  day  they  can  easily  secure 
all  the  water  they  can  then  drink.  High-producing  animals  should 
have  water  at  least  twice  a  day.  The  supply  should  be  of  good 
quality  and  close  by,  so  the  cows  will  not  be  forced  to  travel  far. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  the  advisability  of  warming  water  for  cows 
in  winter.  Owing  to  the  heavy  rations  cows  in  milk  consume,  there 
is  a  large  amount  of  heat  produced  in  their  bodies  thru  the  energy 
expended  in  the  mastication,  digestion,  and  assimilation  of  the  feed. 
When  comfortably  housed,  probably  little  or  no  nutrients  need  be 
burned  in  the  body  for  warming  the  water  drunk  in  winter,  provided 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  DAIRY  COWS  263 

it  is  no  colder  than  that  from  a  deep  well.  However,  it  is  advan- 
tageous to  warm  the  water  for  heavy-yielding  cows,  for  unless  this  is 
done  they  may  not  drink  enough  to  make  possible  the  maximum  pro- 
duction of  milk.  In  regions  with  severe  winters  cows  should  be 
watered  indoors  when  the  weather  is  so  bad  that  it  is  not  desirable 
to  turn  them  out  for  exercise. 

Salt. — We  have  already  seen  in  Chapter  IV  that  dairy  cows  re- 
quire salt  to  thrive.  An  allowance  of  0.75  ounce  daily  per  1,000  lbs. 
live  weight,  with  0.6  ounce  in  addition  for  each  20  lbs.  of  milk  is 
generally  sufficient.^*  The  salt  may  be  regularly  mixed  with  the 
feed,  or  the  cows  may  be  allowed  free  access  to  it. 

Preparation  of  feed. — Since 'the  cow  giving  a  large  flow  of  milk  is 
working  hard,  her  grain  should  be  ground  or  crushed  if  not  otherwise 
easy  of  mastication  and  digestion.  Corn  and  oats  should  generally, 
and  wheat,  rye,  barley,  kafir,  and  milo  always,  be  ground  or  crushed, 
and  roots  should  be  sliced  or  pulped.  There  is  no  advantage  in  cook- 
ing or  soaking  ordinary  feeds. 

Frequency  and  order  of  feeding. — On  account  of  the  large 
capacity  of  the  cow's  paunch  and  the  considerable  time  needed  for 
rumination,  the  common  practice  of  feeding  cows  twice  daily,  with 
possibly  a  little  roughage  at  noon,  is  a  reasonable  one.  In  the  roomy 
paunch  hay  and  grain,  eaten  separately,  are  thoroly  mixed  by  the 
churning  action  and  gradually  softened  in  the  warm,  abundant 
liquid  the  paunch  contains.  This  true,  the  particular  order  of  feed- 
ing roughages  and  concentrates  is  not  important,  tho  the  same  order 
should  be  followed  from  day  to  day  and  the  cows  should  be  fed  at 
regular  intervals.  Hay  and  other  dry  forage  is  usually  not  fed  till 
after  milking,  because  they  fill  the  air  with  dust.  Silage,  turnips, 
cabbage,  or  other  feeds  with  a  marked  odor  should  be  given  only 
after  milking. 

Cows  need  a  rest. — Dairymen  agree  that  it  is  best  to  give  the  dairy 
cow  a  rest  by  drying  her  off  6  to  8  weeks  before  freshening,  for  she 
will  then  produce  more  milk  annually  than  if  milked  continuously. 
To  avoid  injury  to  the  udder  she  should  be  dried  off  gradually.  She 
should  also  be  in  good  condition  at  calving,  for  this  insures  a  good 
flow  of  milk  and  lessens  the  trouble  i,n  calving.  Only  sufficient  con- 
centrates should  be  fed  to  put  her  in  proper  flesh,  and  if  she  has  been 
heavily  fed  with  rich  concentrates  while  giving  milk,  a  helpful  change 
may  now  be  made  to  a  ration  which  will  rest  and  cool  the  digestive 
tract.  Just  previous  to  calving  the  feed  should  be  slightly  laxative, 
tho  if  on  pasture  no  especial  attention  need  be  given  to  this  point. 
For  cows  that  freshen  while  housed  nothing  is  better  than  legume 

i4Babcock  and  Carlyle,  Wis.   Rpt.    1905. 


264  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

hay  and  silage,  with  a  couple  of  pounds  of  concentrates  added,  if 
necessary. 

Calving  time. — The  gestation  period  of  the  cow  is  from  280  to  285 
days.  At  calving  time  she  should  be  kept  in  a  clean,  comfortable, 
well-bedded  box  stall  unless  on  pasture,  and  should  not  be  molested 
unless  assistance  is  required.  In  winter  her  drinking  water  should 
be  lukewarm  for  2  or  3  days  after  calving,  and  she  should  be  pro- 
tected from  cold  drafts,  for  her  vitality  is  then  low.  The  feed  for 
the  first  few  days  should  be  limited  in  amount  and  of  cooling,  laxa- 
tive nature.  Besides  legume  hay  and  silage,  she  may  be  given  such 
feeds  as  bran,  often  fed  as  a  mash,  oats,  and  linseed  meal.  High- 
producing  cows  should  be  watched  closely  for  signs  of  milk-fever, 
and  the  air  treatment,  the  great  boon  to  dairymen,  used  if  necessary. 
The  yearly  production  of  the  cow  depends  in  a  considerable  measure 
on  the  feed  she  receives  during  the  first  month  after  calving.  The 
concentrate  allowance,  small  at  first,  should  be  increased  gradually, 
at  the  rate  of  a  half-pound  every  other  day  until  the  full  allowance  is 
reached,  for  heavy  feeding  immediately  after  calving  may  lead  to 
digestive  disturbances.  If  the  udder  is  swollen  and  hard,  even  more 
care  should  be  used  in  getting  the  cow  to  the  full  ration. 

By  having  cows  freshen  in  the  fall  a  larger  annual  yield  of  milk 
is  possible,  for  they  give  a  good  flow  during  the  winter  and  are 
stimulated  to  high  production  again  when  turned  to  pasture  in 
spring.  Spring-fresh  cows  yield  most  of  their  milk  when  dairy  prod- 
ucts are  low  in  price  and  when  the  dairyman  is  busiest  with  his  crops. 
When  cows  freshen  in  the  fall  more  time  can  be  given  to  the  raising 
of  the  calves,  and  there  will  be  less  trouble  from  scours  than  in 
summer.  Fall-dropped  calves  are  large  enough  by  spring  to  make 
good  use  of  pasture  and  are  better  able  to  stand  the  hot  weather. 

IV.    The  Cost  op  IMilk  Production 

Annual  feed  requirement. — The  following  table  shows  the  amount 
and  cost  of  feed  consumed  annually  by  dairy  cows  and  the  returns  in 
milk  and  fat,  as  shown  by  trials  at  10  widely  separated  American 
stations. 

At  the  IMassachusetts  Station  the  cows  were  fed  soilage  in  the 
summ.er,  only  the  dry  cows  being  turned  to  pasture.  In  New  Jersey 
they  were  likewise  maintained  in  summer  almost  wholly  on  soilage 
and  silage.  At  the  other  stations  the  pasture  period  ranged  from  131 
days  in  Minnesota  to  191  in  Missouri.  The  great  value  of  alfalfa 
hay  in  reducing  the  amount  of  concentrates  fed  and  the  cost  of  keep 
is  shown  by  the  Utah  and  Montana  reports.     The  prices  of  feed  have 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  DAIRY  COWS 


265 


advanced  materially  since  these  results  were  reported,  but  from  the 
data  in  the  table  one  can  readily  estimate  the  yearly  cost  of  feed  at 
local  market  prices.  IMilk  and  butter  are  commonly  produced  at  much 
less  expense  in  summer  when  the  herd  is  on  pasture,  than  when  in 
winter  quarters. 

Feed  requirement  of  the  dairy  coiv  as  found  hy  ten  stations 


No.  of 
years 

Feed  eaten 

Av.  cost 
of  feed 
per  cow 

Retu 

rns 

Stations 

Pas- 
ture 

Concen- 
trates 

Silage, 
roots, 
soilage 

Hay 

Milk 

Pat 

Da.vs 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Dols. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Massachusetts  i 

G 

38 

2,149 

4.938 

5,105 

90.04 

6,036 

306 

Connecticut  2     .  . 

5 

152 

2,029 

8,694 

1,830 

53.46 

5,498 

279 

New  Jersey  s    .  . 

0 

lUS* 

2.G24 

1G,753 

1,825 

44.68 

6,165 

277 

Michigan  4     

1 

139 

2,774 

3,G38 

3,986 

35.96 

7,009 

260 

Wisconsin  s     ... 

3 

180 

1,914 

9,448 

1,200 

37.68 

7,061 

299 

Wisconsin  e     ... 

4 

150* 

2,010 

8,318 

1,490 

48.82 

8,036 

344 

Minnesota  7     ... 

1 

131 

3,435 

5,30G 

2,029 

37.82 

6,408 

301 

Missouri  **     .... 

1 

191 

3,027 

3,480 

35.30 

5,927 

248 

Utah  9    

5 

153 

1,305 

4,518 

21.43 

5,601 

237 

Montana  i*'    .... 

2 

150 

1.1G9 

6,4  G8 

32.45 

5,993 

250 

Nebraska  n   .... 

2 

187 

1,979 

3,692 

2,347 

31.61 

8,783 

339 

1  Bui.    145.      2  Bui.    29.      3  Rpts.    1897-1904.      4  Bui.    166.      5  Rpts.    1905-7.      6  Buls.    167, 
187,217.      7  Bui.  35.     8  Bui.  26.     9  BuL  68.     10  Rpt.  1905.      11  Bui.  101. 
*  Pasture  limited  in  amount. 


Cost  of  keeping  cows. — In  addition  to  the  cost  of  feed,  the  dairy 
cow  should  be  charged  with:  (1)  depreciation,  interest,  and  taxes  on 
the  cow  herself;   (2)   depreciation,  interest,  and  taxes  on  buildings; 

(3)  depreciation  and  interest  on  barn  tools  and  dairy  implements; 

(4)  cost  of  perishable  tools  and  supplies,  including  bedding,  ice,  salt, 
brushes,  record  sheets,  etc.;  (5)  proportionate  cost  of  pure-bred  sire; 
(6)  cost  of  labor  in  caring  for  cow.  These  are  estimated  by  various 
authorities  at  $56  to  $73  per  head  annually,  but  will  vary  greatly 
for  the  different  sections  of  the  country,  depending  on  the  price  of 
labor,  the  shelter  required,  etc.  These  figures  will,  however,  give  an 
approximate  idea  of  the  amount  which  should  be  added  to  the  cost 
of  feed  to  obtain  the  total  cost  of  maintaining  a  cow  for  a  year. 
In  turn,  the  cow  should  be  credited  not  only  with  the  value  of  her 
product,  either  milk,  or  butter  fat  and  skim  milk,  but  also  with  the 
value  of  her  calf  and  of  the  manure  she  produces. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Compare  the  economy  with  which  the  cow  and  the  steer  produce  human 
food. 

2.  What  is  meant  by  dairy  type  and  beef  type? 

3.  How  do  good  and  poor   producers  compare   in   economy  of  production? 


266  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

4.  How  would  Tou  build  up  a  herd  of  high-producing  cows? 

5.  Discuss  the  keeping  of  records  of  production  and  the  work  of  cow  testing 
associations. 

6.  What  is  the  common  range  in  composition  of  milk? 

7.  What  is  the  average  percentage  of  total  solids  and  fat  in  Jersey,  Guernsey, 
Ayrshire,  and  Holstein  milk? 

8.  Discuss  the  influence  of  individuality,  portion  of  milk  drawn,  period  be- 
tween milkings,  age  of  cow,  advancing  lactation,  and  condition  at  calving  on 
the  composition  and  yield  of  milk. 

9.  What  influence  does  the  feed  have:  (a)  on  the  richness  of  milk;  (b)  on 
the  amount  of  milk  produced? 

10.  How  do  turning  to  pasture,  temperature,  weather,  exercise,  grooming, 
milking  machines,  and  regularity  and  kindness  affect  milk  production? 

11.  What  causes  the  yellow  color  of  butter  fat? 

12.  Name  seven  pasture  conditions  which  should  be  imitated  during  the  rest 
of  the  year. 

13.  How  much  concentrates  should  be  fed  to  dairy  cows:  (a)  in  winter;  (b)  on 
pasture?     Would  you  feed  the  same  amount  to  all  the  cows  in  the  herd? 

14.  Discuss  the  importance  of  properly  balanced  rations,  succulent  and  pala- 
table feed,  shelter  and  comfort,  water,  salt,  preparation  of  feed,  and  frequency 
and  order  of  feeding. 

15.  How  should  cows  be  fed  and  cared  for  before  calving  and  at  calving 
time  ? 

16.  Find  the  actual  amounts  and  cost  of  feed  given  dairy  cows  in  a  good  herd 
in  your  vicinity  and  compare  with  the  figures  in  this  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

FEEDS  FOR  THE  DAIRY  COW 

I.    Caebonaceous  Concentrates 

With  the  high  prices  now  ruling  for  feed  and  labor,  on  many 
farms,  even  where  good  dairy  cows  are  kept,  milk  is  being  produced 
at  little  or  no  profit  to  the  owner.  Yet,  by  a  wise  selection  of  feeds 
other  dairymen  secure  goodly  profits  from  cows  no  better.  This 
shows  emphatically  that  the  feeding  of  the  herd  should  be  given  most 
careful  study,  and  the  system  of  farming  so  planned  that  a  ration 
both  well  balanced  in  chemical  nutrients  and  otherwise  satisfactory 
may  be  provided  at  minimum  expense. 

Indian  corn. — Thruout  the  corn  belt  Indian  corn,  a  grain  highly 
relished  by  the  cow,  is  usually  the  cheapest  carbonaceous  concentrate 
available.  Owing  to  its  wide  nutritive  ratio,  corn  should  be  used 
as  the  sole  concentrate  only  when  leguminous  roughages  supply  the 
lacking  protein,  and  even  then  more  variety  in  the  ration  is  advis- 
able. The  poor  results  secured  when  corn  is  not  properly  balanced 
by  protein-rich  feeds  are  shown  in  the  following  table.  This  gives 
the  results  of  a  trial  at  the  Illinois  Station  ^  in  which  one  lot  of  cows 
was  fed  a  well-balanced  ration,  in  which  gluten  feed  and  clover  hay 
furnished  the  necessary  protein,  while  a  second  lot  was  fed  corn 
as  the  only  concentrate,  with  corn  silage,  timothy  hay,  and  a  small 
amount  of  clover  hay. 

Corn  requires  supplement  for  feeding  dairy  cows 

Average  ration 
Lot  I,  balanced  ration 
Ground  corn,  3.3  lbs. 
Gluten  feed,  4.7  lbs. 

Lot  II,  unbalanced  ration 
Ground  corn,  8  lbs. 


Nutritive 
ratio 

Averaee  daily   yield 
Milk                 Fat 
Lbs.                 Lbs. 

Clover  hay,  8  lbs. 
Corn  silage,  30  lbs.  .  . 

....    1:   6 

30.1             0.96 

Timothy  hay,  5  lbs. 
Clover  hay,  3  lbs. 
Corn  silage,  30  lbs.  .  . 

1:11 

20.5             0.69 

During  the  trial  the  cows  in  Lot  I  produced  47  per  ct.  more  milk 
and  39  per  ct.  more  fat  than  those  in  Lot  II,  fed  the  same  weight 

iFraser  and  Hayden,  111.  Bui.  159. 

267 


Fig.  75. — Champion  Cows  of  the  Variot^s  Dairy  I^heeds 

Upper,  left. — Holstein  cow.  Duchess  Skylark  Ormsbv.  Record  at  5  years  of 
age,  27,761.7  lbs.  milk,  containing  120o.09  lbs.  butter  fat.  (World's  record  for 
butter  fat  production.)      Owned  by  John  B.  Irwin,  Minneapolis.  Minn. 

Upper,  right. — Holstein  cow,  Tilly  Alcartra.  Record  at  5  years  of  age,  30,4o2.6 
lbs.  milk,  containing  951.20  lbs.  butter  fat.  (World's  record  for  milk  production.) 
Owned  by  A.  W.  Morris  and  Sons.  Woodland,  Cal. 

Middle,  left. — Guernsey  cow,  Murne  Cowan.  Record  at  8  years  of  age,  24,008.0 
lbs.  milk,  containing  1,098.18  lbs.  butter  fat.  Owned  by  6.  C.  Barlber,  Akron, 
Ohio. 

Middle,  right. — Jersey  cow,  Sophie  19th.  of  Hood  Farm.  Record  at  7  years  of 
age,  17,557.8  lbs.  milk,  containing  999.14  lbs.  butter  fat.  Owned  by  C.  L  Hood, 
Lowell,  Mass. 

Loicer,  left. — Ayrshire  cow,  Lily  of  Willowmoor.  Record,  22,596  lbs.  of  milk, 
containing  955.56  lbs.  butter  fat.     Owned  by  J.  W.  Clise,  Redmond,  Wash. 

Loicer  right. — Brown  Swiss  cow.  College  Bravura.  Record,  19,460.0  lbs.  milk, 
containing  798.16  lbs.  butter  fat.  Owned  by  Michigan  Agr.  College.  (Photo 
from  Hoard's  Dairfiman.) 


FEEDS  FOR  THE  DAIRY  COW  269 

of  concentrates  and  roughages,  but  in  an  unbalanced  ration.  This 
shows  the  folly  of  expecting  profitable  production  from  such  un- 
balanced combinations  of  feed,  even  tho  they  may  be  palatable. 

Corn  is  commonly  ground  for  dairy  cows,  but  sometimes  ear  or 
shock  corn  is  fed.  When  other  bulky  concentrates  are  not  furnished 
it  may  be  advisable  to  feed  com  in  the  form  of  corn-and-cob-meal. 

Hominy  feed. — This  by-product,  quite  similar  to  corn  in  composi- 
tion, compares  favorably  with  it  in  feeding  value.  Like  corn,  it 
should  be  supplemented  by  feeds  rich  in  protein. 

Oats. — This  grain,  which  supplies  somewhat  more  protein  than 
does  corn  or  wheat,  is  an  excellent  feed  for  the  dairy  cow,  but,  owing 
to  their  high  price,  it  is  usually  not  economical  to  use  any  large 
amount  of  oats.  The  various  concentrate  by-products  are  generally 
cheaper  sources  of  crude  protein,  while  corn  furnishes  carbohydrates 
at  less  expense. 

Barley,  wheat,  rye,  emmer.— Barley  is  quite  widely  fed  to  dairy 
cows  in  Europe,  and  has  a  reputation  for  producing  milk  and  butter 
of  excellent  quality.  Judging  from  trials  with  other  animals,  barley 
is  slightly  lower  in  value  per  pound  than  corn.  Wheat,  which  is 
usually  too  high  priced  for  feeding  except  when  of  poor  quality, 
has  about  the  same  value  for  cows  as  corn.  Large  allowances  of 
rye  produce  a  hard,  dry  butter,  but  2  to  3  lbs.  per  head  daily  mixed 
with  other  feeds  has  given  good  results.  Emmer  is  about  13  per 
ct.  less  valuable  than  corn  or  barley  for  dairy  cows.  All  these  small 
grains  should  be  ground,  or,  preferably,  rolled. 

Kafir,  milo,  and  sorghum. — These  grains  are  of  great  importance 
to  dairymen  in  the  semi-arid  Southwest,  being  the  cheapest  concen- 
trates available.  Meal  from  the  sweet  sorghums  is  only  10  to  15 
per  ct.  less  valuable  than  corn,  and  kafir  and  milo  probably  approach 
corn  even  more  closely  in  value. 

Dried  beet  pulp. — On  account  of  its  slightly  laxative  and  cooling 
effect,  this  bulky,  carbonaceous  concentrate  has  become  popular  with 
dairymen,  especially  for  cows  on  forced  test.  It  is  about  equal  to 
corn  in  value.  Where  silage  is  not  available,  dried  beet  pulp,  mois- 
tened before  feeding,  as  it  should  always  be  when  fed  in  large  amount, 
is  a  satisfactory,  tho  usually  an  expensive,  substitute. 


II.     Protein-Rich  Concentrates 

Wheat  bran. — This  palatable,  bulky  concentrate  is  one  of  the  most 
esteemed  feeds  for  the  dairy  cow,  since  it  is  fairly  high  in  crude  pro- 
tein, rich  in  phosphorus,  and  has  a  beneficial  laxative  effect  on  the 
digestive  tract.     Owing  to  its  popularity,  bran  is  often  high  in  price, 


270  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

considering  the  amount  of  crude  protein  it  furnishes.  Other  by- 
products, such  as  gluten  feed,  dried  brewers'  grains,  and  cottonseed 
meal,  wliich  are  richer  in  digestible  crude  protein,  are  therefore 
usually  more  economical  supplements  for  rations  low  in  protein. 
Hence,  it  is  often  best  to  feed  bran  only  in  limited  amount  for  its 
beneficial  effect  on  the  health  of  the  animals,  rather  than  attempt  to 
balance  the  ration  with  bran  alone.  This  concentrate  is  especially 
valuable  for  cows  just  before  and  after  calving,  for  those  on  official 
test,  and  for  young,  growing  animals. 

Wheat  middlings  or  shorts;  wheat  mixed  feed. — Tho  higher  in 
digestible  crude  protein  than  wheat  bran,  middlings  or  shorts  are 
less  palatable  and  are  heavy,  rather  than  bulky  feeds.  They  should 
hence  be  fed  to  dairy  cows  only  in  limited  amounts,  mixed  with  other 
concentrates.  Due  to  its  higher  content  of  digestible  crude  protein 
and  carbohydrates,  a  good  grade  of  wheat  mixed  feed  is  worth  about 
10  per  ct.  more  than  wheat  bran. 

Corn  gluten  feed;  gluten  meal;  germ  oil  meal. — Gluten  feed,  which 
carries  about  twice  as  much  digestible  crude  protein  as  wheat  bran, 
is  a  valuable  concentrate  for  the  dairy  cow.  In  a  trial  at  the  Ver- 
mont Station  -  when  4  lbs.  of  gluten  feed  replaced  an  equal  weight 
of  a  mixture  of  wheat  bran  and  corn  meal,  the  yield  of  milk  was 
increased  15  per  ct.  Gluten  meal  contains  as  much  digestible  crude 
protein  as  linseed  meal,  and  is  also  satisfactory  for  cows.  Germ  oil 
meal  and  wheat  bran,  mixed  in  equal  parts,  proved  superior  to  a 
mixture  of  1  part  cottonseed  meal,  1  part  linseed  meal,  and  2  parts 
wheat  bran  in  a  trial  at  the  Vermont  Station.^ 

Dried  brewers'  grains. — This  bulky  concentrate  is  widely  fed  to 
dairy  cows.  It  is  somewhat  superior  to  wheat  bran,  as  we  should 
expect,  for  it  contains  over  70  per  ct.  more  digestible  crude  protein 
and  slightly  more  total  digestible  nutrients. 

Malt  sprouts. — Tho  not  especially  palatable,  malt  sprouts  may  be 
successfully  fed  to  dairy  cows  when  mixed  with  other  feeds,  and  are 
often  a  cheap  source  of  protein.  In  a  trial  at  the  Massachusetts 
Station  *  1.5  lbs.  of  gluten  feed  proved  equal  to  2  lbs.  of  malt  sprouts. 
As  malt  sprouts  swell  greatly  on  absorbing  water  they  should  be 
soaked  before  feeding  to  avoid  digestive  disturbances,  when  over  2 
lbs.  daily  is  fed.  Feeding  more  than  about  3.3  lbs.  of  malt  sprouts 
per  head  daily  may  give  a  bitter  taste  to  the  milk,  and  large  allow- 
ances may  even  cause  abortion. 

Cottonseed  meal. — Experience  has  shown  that  cottonseed  meal  may 
be  fed  to  dairy  cows  in  properly  balanced  rations  for  years  with  no 

2  Cooke,  Vt.  Ept.   1892.  4  Lindsey,  Mass.  Bui.  94. 

3  Hills,  Vt.  Ept.   1901. 


FEEDS  FOR  THE  DAIRY  COW  271 

ill  effect.  This  is  most  fortunate,  since  this  highly  nitrogenous  feed 
is  usually  the  cheapest  source  of  protein  in  the  South  and  often  like- 
wise in  the  North.  Owing  to  its  richness  in  protein,  cottonseed  meal 
is  even  more  valuable  than  linseed  meal  for  balancing  rations  low  in 
this  nutrient,  and  is  worth  considerably  more  than  gluten  feed  or 
dried  distillers'  grains.  Since  cottonseed  meal  is  constipating  it 
should  be  fed  with  laxative  concentrates,  such  as  linseed  meal  or  wheat 
bran,  or  with  succulent  feed,  such  as  silage  or  roots.  The  milk  of 
cows  heavily  fed  on  cottonseed  meal  yields  a  hard,  tallowy  butter, 
light  in  color  and  poor  in  flavor.  If  a  moderate  allowance  is  fed  in 
a  properly  balanced  ration,  the  quality  is  not  injured  and  may 
even  be  improved  if  the  other  feeds  tend  to  produce  a  soft  butter. 
Some  authorities  recommend  feeding  no  more  than  2  to  3  lbs.  of 
cottonseed  meal  per  head  daily.  However,  when  this  highly  nitrog- 
enous, heavy  feed  is  mixed  with  others  which  are  bulky  and  lower 
in  protein  and  the  cows  are  fed  silage  or  other  succulence,  as  much 
as  6  lbs.  of  the  meal  has  been  fed  daily  to  large  cows  with  good 
results.  At  the  North  Carolina  Station  ^  a  mixture  of  equal  parts 
cottonseed  meal,  dried  beet  pulp,  and  dried  distillers'  grains  was 
highly  satisfactory  when  fed  with  corn  silage.  A  mixture  of  cotton- 
seed meal,  corn  meal,  and  wheat  bran  also  gave  good  results. 

Linseed  meal.— This  slightly  laxative,  cooling,  protein-rich  concen- 
trate is  one  of  the  best  dairy  feeds,  but  its  popularity  usually  makes 
it  more  expensive  than  some  of  the  other  protein-rich  feeds  which 
are  usually  available.  Nevertheless,  1  to  2  lbs.  per  head  daily  is 
often  advisable  on  account  of  its  tonic  and  laxative  effect,  especially 
with  cows  out  of  condition  and  those  soon  to  freshen.  Linseed  meal 
tends  to  produce  a  soft  butter  and  therefore  may  be  advantageously 
added  to  rations  that  produce  a  tallowy  product. 

Dried  distillers'  grains.— Dried  distillers'  grains,  which  are  about 
as  bulky  as  wheat  bran,  are  extensively  employed  for  feeding  dairy 
cows,  bom  distillers'  grains  are  slightly  more  valuable  than  gluten 
feed,  but  furnish  less  protein  than  cottonseed  meal  or  linseed  meal. 
The  rye  distillers'  grains  are  of  lower  value  than  those  chiefly  from 
corn.  At  the  Kentucky  Station «  it  was  found  that  some  cows  would 
not  eat  large  allowances  of  dried  distillers'  grains  until  they  became 
accustomed  to  the  slightly  sour  smell  and  taste. 

Soybeans;  soybean  meal  or  cake.— Ground  soijheans  have  proved 
slightly  superior  to  cottonseed  meal  when  not  over  2  to  3.4  lbs.  were 
fed  mixed  with  other  concentrates.  Too  large  an  allowance  of  soy- 
beans makes  soft  butter.  This  fault  can  be  corrected  by  feeding 
them  with  cottonseed  meal. 

5Proc.  Amer.  Soc.  Anim.  Prod.   1914.  6  Hooper,  Ky.  Bui.   171. 


272  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Soybean  meal  or  cake,  from  which  the  fat  has  been  extracted,  does 
not  make  soft  butter,  and  is  slightly  more  valuable  than  cottonseed 
meal. 

Cocoanut  meal. — When  no  more  than  3  to  4  lbs.  per  head  daily 
is  fed,  cocoanut  meal  produces  a  firm  butter  of  excellent  quality. 
More  may  make  too  hard  a  butter.  Cocoanut  meal  is  about  equal  to 
gluten  feed  for  dairy  cows. 

III.    Hay  from  the  Legumes 

Legume  hay  for  the  dairy  cow. — Over  much  of  this  country  the 
Indian-corn  plant  provides  the  cheapest,  most  abundant,  and  most 
palatable  carbohydrates  the  farmer  can  produce,  but  it  falls  short  in 
furnishing  protein,  so  vital  in  milk  production.  Happily,  wherever 
corn  flourishes  at  least  one  of  the  legumes — alfalfa,  clover,  cowpeas, 
vetch,  etc. — can  be  grown  to  meet  this  deficiency.  High  in  crude 
protein  and  mineral  matter,  especially  lime,  the  legume  hays  aid 
greatly  in  reducing  the  amount  of  expensive  protein-rich  concen- 
trates needed  to  provide  a  properly  balanced  ration  for  dairy  cows. 
The  following  articles  show  that  when  plenty  of  good  legume  hay  and 
silage  from  nearly  matured  and  well-eared  corn  is  supplied,  only  half 
as  much  concentrates  need  be  fed  as  when  only  carbonaceous  rough- 
ages are  used. 

Alfalfa  hay. — Good  alfalfa  hay  heads  the  list  of  roughages  suitable 
for  the  dairy  cow,  on  account  of  its  high  content  of  protein  and  its 
palatability.  Leafy,  early-cut  alfalfa  hay  is  the  best  for  dairy  cattle. 
The  value  of  this  hay  in  balancing  rations  otherwise  low  in  protein 
is  shown  in  a  trial  at  the  Ohio  Station  ^  in  which  2  lots  each  of  6  cows 
w^ere  fed  the  rations  shown  below  for  56  days: 

Alfalfa  hay  as  source  of  protein  for  dairy  cows 


Average  ration 
Lot  I 

Average 
Milk 
Lbs. 

daily   yield 
Fat 
Lbs. 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Alfalfa  hay,  11.6  lbs. 
Corn  silage,  27.8  lbs. 

Corn  meal,  5.9  lbs 22.0 

0.87 

1:7.0 

Lot  II 

Corn  stover,  5.6  lbs. 
Corn  silage,  29.3  lbs. 

Cottonseed  meal,  3.1  lbs. 

Wheat  bran,  3.1  lbs. 

Corn  meal,  3.1  lbs 20.5 

0.90 

1:5.7 

The  ration  fed  Lot  I — alfalfa  hay,  corn  silage,  and  corn  meal^--- 
would  undoubtedly  have  been  improved  had  a  greater  variety  of 
concentrates  been  fed,  yet  with  alfalfa  hay  as  the  sole  supplement, 

7  Caldwell,  Ohio  Bui.  267. 


FEEDS  FOK  THE  DAIRY  COW  273 

a  well-balanced  ration  was  provided  which  produced  substantially  as 
good  results  as  that  fed  Lot  II,  in  which  wheat  bran  and  cottonseed 
meal  furnished  most  of  the  protein.  While  Lot  II  was  fed  9.3  lbs. 
of  rich  concentrates,  Lot  I  received  only  5.9  lbs.  of  corn  meal. 

Similar  results  have  been  secured  in  other  trials  where  alfalfa  hay 
has  replaced  half  or  even  somewhat  more  of  the  concentrates  usually 
fed. 

Substituting  alfalfa  hay  for  all  the  concentrates. — In  a  still  more 
drastic  trial  of  the  value  of  alfalfa  hay  for  milk  production  at  the 
New  Jersey  Station  ^  all  the  concentrates  for  one  lot  of  cows  were 
replaced  by  alfalfa  hay,  as  shown  in  the  table : 

Replacing  all  the  concentrate  allowance  with  alfalfa  hay 

Average   ration 


Average 

daily   yield 

Feed  cost 

Milk 

Fat 

per  100 
lbs.  milk  * 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Cents 

Ration  I 

Corn  stover,  6.8  lbs.       Distillers'  grains,  4.6  lbs. 

Corn  silage,  40.0  lbs.      Wheat  bran,  4.2  lbs. 

Cottonseed  meal,  0.5  lb.      24.6  1.07  83.7 

Ration  II 

Alfalfa  hay,   17.5  lbs. 

Corn  silage,  35.0  lbs.      No  concentrates   20.4  0.88  94.4 

*  Cost  of  feeds  per  ton:  alfalfa  hay,  $16;  corn  silage,  $3;  corn  stover,  $4;  distillers'  grains, 
$30;  wheat  bran,  $24;  and  cottonseed  meal,  $34. 

In  this  trial  when  the  cows  were  fed  Ration  II,  containing  a  heavy 
allowance  of  alfalfa  hay  with  no  concentrates,  the  yield  of  milk  was 
17  per  ct.  and  of  fat  18  per  ct.  less  than  when  Ration  I,  containing 
over  9  lbs.  of  purchased  protein-rich  concentrates,  was  fed.  With 
feeds  at  the  prices  stated,  milk  was  produced  more  cheaply  on  Ration 
I.  The  relative  economy  of  such  rations  obviously  depends  on  the 
price  of  alfalfa  hay  compared  with  concentrates. 

The  preceding  trials  show  that  alfalfa  hay  can  be  substituted  for 
a  large  part  of  the  concentrates  in  the  ration  of  the  dairy  cow  with- 
out materially  reducing  the  yield  of  milk  or  fat.  However,  when  all 
the  concentrates  are  so  replaced  the  yield  of  cows  of  good  productive 
capacity  is  markedly  decreased.  This  is  reasonable,  for,  tho  stand- 
ing at  the  head  of  all  roughages,  alfalfa  haj^  is  nevertheless  a  rough- 
age and  not  a  concentrate.  It  contains  about  3  times  as  much  fiber  as 
wheat  bran  and  furnishes  but  70  per  ct.  as  much  net  energy.  Bearing 
in  mind  the  productive  capacity  of  his  cows  and  the  price  of  legume 
hay  compared  with  concentrates,  each  dairyman  must  decide  for  him- 
self to  what  extent  it  is  economical  to  substitute  legume  hay  for 
concentrates. 

8  Billings,   N.   J,   Bui.   204, 


274 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


In  some  sections  of  the  West,  owing  to  the  cheapness  of  alfalfa 
\my,  dairy  cows  are  given  this  feed  alone,  possibly  with  green  alfalfa 
soilage  or  pasturage  in  addition  during  the  summer.  Complaints 
are  made  that  this  unbalanced  ration,  which  is  too  high  in  protein 
and  too  low  in  net  nutrients,  does  not  always  maintain  the  animals 
in  as  good  health  as  w^here  concentrates  or  even  roughages  lower  in 
protein  are  added. 

Alfalfa  meal. — In  view  of  the  palatability  of  alfalfa  hay  to  the 
dairy  cow  and  its  thoro  mastication  during  rumination,  alfalfa  meal 


- 

1  ,>;^^|^^^^|^' 

■ip^vl^l-^^^^X^I 

JH as__:2& --^ . : ^2. :_ 

Fig,  76. — Dairy  Cows  Utilizing  Land  Unsuited  for  Tillage 

One  of  the  great  advantages  of  live  stock  is  that  they  can  graze  upon   land 
unsuited  for  tillage.      (From  Kimball's  Dairy  Farmer.) 


is  ordinarily  not  economical  when  good  alfalfa  hay  is  available,  for 
the  fine  grinding  does  not  increase  its  value. 

Clover  hay. — Hay  from  the  clovers,  cut  while  yet  in  bloom,  is 
one  of  the  best  roughages  for  dairy  cows.  Tho  somewhat  lower  than 
alfalfa  hay  in  protein,  red  clover  hay  furnishes  a  slightly  larger 
amount  of  net  energy.  By  the  use  of  clover  hay — red,  alsike,  or 
crimson — the  amount  of  concentrates  needed  to  supply  a  well-balanced 
ration  can  be  reduced  just  as  when  alfalfa  hay  is  used.    For  example, 


FEEDS  FOR  THE  DAIRY  COW  275 

in  a  trial  at  the  New  Jersey  Station  ®  cows  fed  16.4  lbs.  of  crimson 
clover  hay  and  30  lbs.  of  com  silage  per  head  daily  with  no  con- 
centrates gave  15  per  ct.  less  milk  than  when  fed  6  lbs.  of  wheat  bran, 
5  lbs.  dried  brewers'  grains,  30  lbs.  corn  silage  and  5  lbs.  mixed  hay. 
Replacing  the  concentrates  by  crimson  clover  hay,  however,  effected 
a  saving  of  over  18  cents  in  the  feed  cost  of  producing  100  lbs.  of 
milk. 

Hay  from  other  legumes. — In  the  South,  the  cowpea,  which  thrives 
on  all  types  of  soil,  is  of  great  importance  to  the  dairy  industry,  as 
it  furnishes  palatable  hay  rich  in  protein.  This  may  be  used  just  like 
alfalfa  or  clover  hay  in  replacing  protein-rich  concentrates.  In  a 
trial  at  the  New  Jersey  Station  "  a  ration  of  17  lbs.  cowpea  hay  and 
36  lbs.  corn  silage  produced  but  2  lbs.  less  milk  and  0.13  lb.  less  fat 
per  cow  daily  than  a  ration  of  9  lbs.  of  protein-rich  concentrates, 
36  lbs.  com  silage,  and  5  lbs.  corn  stover.  ]\lilk  was  produced  cheap- 
est on  the  home-grown  ration.  Where  they  thrive  soybeans,  vetch, 
and  field  peas  all  furnish  excellent  protein-rich  hay  for  dairy  cows. 

IV.     Carbonaceous  Roughages 

Corn  fodder. — Tho  inferior  to  com  silage,  good  corn  fodder,  espe- 
ciall}^  that  from  thickly  planted  corn,  is  relished  by  cows  and  is  a 
satisfactory  substitute  for  hay  from  the  grasses.  In  a  trial  at  the 
Pennsylvania  Station  ^^  corn  fodder  proved  practically  equal  to 
timothy  hay,  and  twice  as  much  can  ordinarily  be  produced  on  a  given 
area.  Rather  than  being  fed  as  the  sole  rougliiage,  it  should  prefer- 
ably be  used  with  legume  hay. 

Corn  stover. — In  trials  at  the  AViseonsin  Station  ^-  1  ton  of  mixed 
clover  and  timothy  hay  proved  equal  to  3  tons  of  uncut  corn  stover, 
and  clear  clover  hay  was  somewhat  more  valuable.  Thirty-four  per 
ct.  of  the  coarse,  uncut  stover  was  left  uneaten.  Had  the  material 
been  cut,  the  cows  would  have  wasted  somewhat  less  and  the  stover 
would  then  have  had  a  higher  value.  These  trials  show  the  heavy 
losses  in  feeding  dry  corn  forage,  while  if  the  forage  were  ensiled, 
practically  all  would  be  consumed. 

Timothy  hay. — While  timothy  hay  is  a  standard  roughage  for  the 
horse,  it  is  unsatisfactory  for  the  dairy  cow.  It  lacks  protein,  is  not 
very  palatable  to  cows,  and  has  a  constipating  effect  quite  opposite  to 
the  beneficial  action  of  legume  hay.  The  value  of  mixed  clover  and 
timothy  hay  for  cows  will  depend  on  the  proportion  of  clover  present. 
To  show  the  poor  results  secured  when  timothy  hay   is   fed  with 

9  Lane,  N.  J.  Bui.  161.  ii  Hunt  and  Caldwell,  Penn.  Rpt.   1892. 

10  Lane,  N.  J.,  Bui.  174.  12  The  senior  author,  Wis.  Rpt.   1884. 


276  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

other  feeds  likewise  low  iu  protein,  the  Illinois  Station  ^^  conducted 
a  trial  on  a  dairy  farm  wdth  2  lots,  each  of  8  cows.  They  were  fed 
10  lbs.  of  either  timothy  or  alfalfa  hay  per  head  daily  with  10  lbs. 
corn  stover  and  12.5  lbs.  of  a  concentrate  mixture  of  2.5  parts  of  com 
meal  and  1  part  of  wheat  bran.  When  fed  the  alfalfa  hay  ration, 
which  had  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :  G.6,  the  cows  produced  over  one- 
sixth  more  milk  than  on  the  unbalanced  timothj^  hay  ration,  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  which  was  1 :  10.2.  The  timothy-fed  cows  lost  in 
weight  and  were  in  poor  condition  generally.  The  production  would 
have  been  even  lower  had  not  a  small  amount  of  bran  been  fed.  This 
trial  shows  clearly  that  when  hay  from  any  of  the  grasses  must  be 
fed  it  should  be  supplemented  by  concentrates  high  in  protein. 

Cottonseed  hulls. — Cottonseed  hulls  contain  a  fair  amount  of  di- 
gestible carbohydrates,  but  are  very  low  in  crude  protein  and  are 
rather  unpalatable  to  cows.  Southern  dairymen  can  supply  roughage 
for  their  herds  more  cheaply  in  the  form  of  corn  silage  than  by  buy- 
ing cottonseed  hulls.  Silage  is  also  more  palatable  and  stimulates  a 
larger  flow  of  milk.  Tho  good  corn  stover  is  worth  fully  as  much  as 
cottonseed  hulls,  southern  dairymen  often  leave  the  corn  stalks  in  the 
field  and  purchase  the  hulls  for  roughage. 

Other  carbonaceous  roughages. — Brome  hay  and  upland  prairie 
hay  equal  timothy  in  value.  Hay  from  other  grasses  and  from  the 
cereals  is  likewise  used  for  feeding  dairy  cows.  In  the  plains  states 
fodder  and  stover  from  the  sorghums  are  common  feeds,  resembling 
the  forage  from  corn  in  feeding  value.  Straw  is  inferior  to  corn 
stover  and  is  usually  not  fed  in  any  large  amount  to  dairy  cows  in 
this  country.  A  limited  amount  of  good  bright  oat  straw,  however, 
often  may  be  fed  with  economy  even  to  dairy  cows.  The  cows  may  be 
allowed  to  pick  over  the  straw  and  the  remainder  used  for  bedding. 

V.    Succulent  Feeds 

Corn  silage. — The  importance  of  succulent  feeds  for  milk  produc- 
tion has  been  pointed  out  in  the  preceding  chapter.  Thruout  the 
chief  dairy  sections  of  the  United  States,  corn  silage  furnishes  the 
cheapest  form  of  succulence.  Due  largely  to  the  fact  that  the  silage 
made  during  earlier  years  was  frequently  of  poor  qualit}^  and  fed  in 
a  careless  manner,  a  widespread  belief  existed  that  silage  injured 
the  flavor  of  the  milk.  For  many  years  the  largest  milk  condensing 
company  in  the  country  prohibited  the  use  of  silage  by  its  patrons. 
Experience  has  now  abundantly  demonstrated  that  when  good  silage 
is  fed  under  proper  conditions  the  quality  of  the  milk  is  improved, 

isFraser  and  Hayden,  111.  Bui.  146. 


FEEDS  FOR  THE  DAIRY  COW  277 

rather  than  injured.  Like  other  feeds,  silage  may  be  abused.  Only 
that  which  is  well  made  should  be  used,  and  this  should  be  fed  directly 
after  milking  and  be  eaten  up  clean  at  each  feeding,  none  being  left 
scattered  on  the  floor  of  the  stable.  The  air  of  the  stable  should  be 
kept  pure  and  wholesome  by  proper  ventilation.  Under  such  con- 
ditions no  one  need  fear  ill  effects  from  feeding  silage  to  dairy  cows, 
for  when  so  fed  even  the  milk  condensing  factories  no  longer  object 
to  its  use.  The  daily  allowance  of  silage  usually  ranges  from  20  to 
40  lbs.  per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight.  A  common  rule  is  to  feed  cows 
3  lbs.  of  silage  and  1  lb.  of  dry  roughage  per  100  lbs.  live  weight. 

In  9  trials  at  various  stations  in  which  corn  silage  was  compared 
with  corn  fodder,  on  the  average  7.4  lbs.  more  milk  was  produced  from 
each  100  lbs.  of  dry  matter  in  the  rations  containing  silage  than  in 
those  containing  fodder  corn.  Since  silage  is  no  more  digestible  than 
dry  fodder,  its  superiority  must  be  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  while 
good-quality  silage  is  eaten  with  little  or  no  waste,  a  considerable 
part  of  the  com  fodder  is  usually  left  uneaten.  Another  reason  is 
that  cows  getting  the  succulent,  palatable  silage  consume  a  heavier 
ration  than  those  fed  the  dry  fodder  and  hence  have  a  larger  amount 
of  nutrients  available  for  milk  production  after  the  maintenance 
requirements  of  the  body  have  been  met. 

Trials  at  the  ]\Iaine  and  Vermont  Stations  ^*  show  that  280  to  350 
lbs.  of  corn  silage  is  worth  rather  more  than  100  lbs.  of  mixed  hay. 
At  the  Utah  Station  ^^  310  to  320  lbs.  of  corn  silage  replaced  100 
lbs.  of  alfalfa  hay  when  fed  in  rations  containing  ample  protein. 

Silage  other  than  corn. — Silage  from  the  grain  sorghums  and  the 
sweet  sorghums,  cut  at  the  proper  stage  of  maturity,  is  but  little 
inferior  to  that  from  corn.  These  crops  are  of  great  importance  to 
the  dairymen  of  the  southwestern  states.  Clover  and  alfalfa  are 
sometimes  ensiled,  tho  there  is  far  less  certainty  of  securing  good 
silage  from  them  than  from  corn  or  the  sorghums.  Such  combina- 
tions as  field  peas  with  oats,  soybeans  or  cowpeas  with  corn  or  the 
sorghums,  and  vetch  with  oats,  wheat,  or  barley,  make  satisfactory 
silage,  rich  in  protein. 

Roots. — Tho  roots  are  excellent  for  dairy  cows,  they  are  little  used 
in  this  country  because  corn  silage  furnishes  much  cheaper  succulence. 
Tho  nearly  90  per  ct.  of  the  dry  matter  in  roots  is  digestible  and  only 
66  per  ct.  of  that  in  corn  silage,  in  actual  feeding  trials  the  dry  matter 
of  silage  has  proven  fully  as  valuable  as  that  in  roots.  Since  corn 
silage  contains  more  dry  matter  than  roots,  it  is  worth  considerably 
more  per  ton.     Sugar  beets  and  mangels  are  the  roots  most  commonly 

14  Jordan,  Maine  Rpt.   1889;   Hills,  Vt.   Rpt.   1901. 

15  Carroll,  information  to  the  authors. 


278 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


fed  to  dairy  cows,  the  former  having  the  higher  value  per  ton  on  ac- 
count of  their  less  watery  nature.  Rutabagas  and  turnips  should  be 
fed  immediately  after  milking  to  avoid  tainting  the  milk. 

Many  breeders  esteem  roots  highly  for  cows  which  are  being  forced 
to  the  utmost  production  on  official  tests.  They  have  a  "cooling" 
effect  on  the  digestive  organs,  helping  to  prevent  digestive  trouble  when 
cows  are  fed  all  the  rich  concentrates  they  will  consume.  In  addition, 
adding  roots  even  to  a  palatable  ration  containing  good  corn  silage 
seems  to  slightly  increase  the  yield  of  milk  and  fat.     This  small  in- 


FiG.  77. — Feeding  Green  Corn  to  Keep  Up  the  Milk  Flow 

If  additional  feed  is  not  supplied  when  pastures  become  parched  in  mid- 
summer, the  milk  flow  will  surely  decrease  and  it  will  not  be  possible  to  bring 
the  cows  back  to  their  normal  yield  even  should  the  pastures  improve  later. 

crease  may  make  such  feeding  of  roots  advantageous  for  breeders  seek- 
ing high  records.  The  practice  will  rarely  be  economical  for  dairy- 
men in  general,  for  the  Michigan  Station  ^*'  has  shown  that  the  addi- 
tional milk  produced  thereby  will  not  pay  for  the  roots  fed. 

Potatoes. — A  heavy  allowance  of  potatoes  produces  milk  of  poor 
flavor.  They  may  be  used  with  success,  however,  when  not  over 
about  33  lbs.  of  cooked  potatoes  are  fed  per  head  daily,  or  somewhat 
less  of  the  raw  tubers. 

16  Shaw  and  Norton,  Mich.  Bui.  240. 


FEEDS  FOR  THE  DAIRY  COW  279 

Wet  beet  pulp. — Wet  beet  pulp  is  liked  by  cows  and  produces  milk 
of  good  quality  when  not  fed  in  excess.  In  a  trial  at  the  New  York 
(Cornell)  Station/^  good  results  were  secured  when  cows  were  fed  50 
to  100  lbs.  of  wet  beet  pulp  per  head  daily  with  8  lbs.  of  grain  and  6 
to  12  lbs.  of  hay.  As  it  contains  only  9  to  10  per  ct.  dry  matter,  wet 
beet  pulp  is  worth  about  one-third  as  much  as  corn  silage  per  ton. 

Soilage.— Trials  at  the  Wisconsin  ^^  and  Nebraska  ^'^  Stations  show 
that  corn  silage  furnishes  just  as  satisfactory  and  much  cheaper  feed  to 
supplement  short  summer  pasture  than  does  a  succession  of  soiling 
crops,  such  as  red  clover,  peas  and  oats,  sweet  corn,  and  field  corn. 
Where  too  few  cows  are  kept  to  consume  the  silage  fast  enough  to  pre- 
vent its  spoiling  or  where  silage  is  not  available  for  any  other  reason, 
the  wise  dairyman  will  provide  a  well-planned  succession  of  soiling 
crops  to  keep  up  the  milk  flow  when  pastures  are  scant. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  With  what  other  feeds  should  corn  or  the  other  cereals  be  combined  for 
dairy  cows? 

2.  How  does  the  value  of  hominy  feed,  oats,  barley,  wheat,  rye,  emmer,  kafir, 
and  dried  beet  pulp  compare  with  that  of  corn? 

3.  Compare  the  value  for  cows  of  wheat  bran,  gluten  feed,  cottonseed  meal, 
linseed  meal,  and  dried  distillers'  grains. 

4.  Name  five  other  protein-rich  concentrates  used  for  dairy  cows  and  discuss 
their  value. 

5.  Show  by  giving  the  results  of  feeding  trials  how  legume  hay  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  expensive  concentrates. 

6.  What  is  the  value  of  corn  fodder,  corn  stover,  timothy  hay,  and  cottonseed 
hulls  for  cows? 

7.  Discuss  the  value  of  corn  silage  for  milk  production. 

8.  What  other  crops  furnish  satisfactory  silage  for  dairy  cows? 

9.  Under  what  conditions  should  roots  be  fed  to  cows? 
10.  Compare  soilage  and  silage  for  summer  feeding. 

17  Wing  and  Anderson,  N.  Y.    (Cornell)    Bui.   183. 

18  Woll,  Humphrey  and  Oosterhuis,  Wis.  Bui.  235. 

19  Frandsen,  Hoard's  Dairyman,  47,  1914,  p.  403. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

RAISING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

I.     The  Skim-milk  Calf 

The  profits  of  dairying  depend  largely  on  carefully  rearing  the 
heifer  calves  from  the  best  cows  in  the  herd.  Starting  with  common 
cows,  in  a  few  years  one  may  easily  and  economically  build  up  a  high- 
producing  herd  by  using  good  pure-bred  sires  and  steadily  replacing 
the  inferior  cows  wath  home-raised  heifers  of  greater  productive 
capacity.  On  the  other  hand,  the  dairyman  who  replenishes  his  herd 
by  purchases  must  pay  high  prices  for  cows  and  heifers,  which,  tho 
of  good  appearance,  are  too  often  poor  producers.  Another  important 
reason  for  raising  the  heifers  is  that  under  this  system  it  is  far  easier 
to  keep  the  herd  free  from  such  diseases  as  tuberculosis  and  contagious 
abortion.  The  prudent  dairyman  accordingly^  first  sees  that  the 
calves  are  well-bred  and  then  so  feeds  and  cares  for  them  that  they 
are  not  stunted,  but  reach  full  development. 

Raising-  calves  on  skim  milk. — The  fat  of  milk  is  so  valuable  that 
but  few  dairy  calves  are  now  raised  on  whole  milk.  Scientific  trials 
and  practical  experience  alike  show  that  with  proper  feeding  calves 
changed  to  skim  milk  when  but  a  few  weeks  old  develop  into  just  as 
good  cows  as  those  fed  whole  milk  until  weaning  time.  Due  to  the 
removal  of  most  of  the  fat,  skim  milk  contains  a  much  larger  propor- 
tion of  protein  than  whole  milk,  and  has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 : 1.5 
compared  with  1 :  4.4  for  unskimmed  milk.  Accordingly,  in  choosing 
supplements  to  feed  with  skim  milk  the  need  is  not  for  additional  pro- 
tein, but  for  an  abundance  of  energy-giving,  easily  digested  carbohy- 
drates or  fat  to  replace  the  fat  removed  from  the  whole  milk.  "While 
various  fats  and  oils  may  be  used  to  supplement  skim  milk,  the  cereal 
grains,  rich  in  carbohydrates,  are  cheaper  and  more  satisfactory  for 
calf  feeding. 

Starting  the  calf  on  whole  milk. — The  skim-milk  calf  is  usually 
allowed  to  get  its  milk  from  the  dam  for  2  or  3  days,  tho  many  dairy- 
men claim  that  if  never  allowed  to  draw  milk  from  the  mother,  it 
learns  more  readily  to  drink  from  the  pail.  In  any  event,  the  calf 
should  always  get  the  first  milk,  or  colostrum,  which  is  designed  by 
Nature  for  cleansing  the  bowels  and  starting  the  digestive  functions. 

280 


RAISING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


281 


If  the  cow  is  a  heavy  milker  the  calf  should  not  be  allowed  to  gorge 
lest  scours  result.  After  each  feeding  the  cow  should  be  stripped 
clean.  When  the  cow's  udder  is  caked,  leaving  the  calf  with  her  will 
aid  in  reducing  inflammation. 

The  calf  is  best  taught  to  drink  milk  from  the  pail  by  using  the 
fingers.  If  it  goes  12  to  24  hours  without  being  fed,  or  until  it  be- 
comes genuinely  hungry,  much  less  difficulty  will  be  experienced  in 
the  first  lesson.  Many  of  the  calf  feeding  devices  on  the  market  are 
unsatisfactory,  and  all  are  dangerous  unless  extreme  care  is  exer- 
cised in  cleansing  and  sterilizing  them. 


Fig.  78. — Thrifty,  Promising  Heifers  Raised  on  Skim  Milk 

With  proper  feeding  and  care,  sl-cim  millc  calves  develop  into  just  as  good  cows 
as  those  fed  whole  milk  until  weaning  time.      (From  Wisconsin  Station.) 

The  young  calf  has  a  small  stomach  and  naturally  takes  milk  fre- 
quently and  in  small  quantities.  Too  large  an  allowance  of  milk 
produces  indigestion  and  scours.  For  the  first  day  or  two  only  5  to 
6  lbs.  should  be  fed,  or  somewhat  more  for  a  large,  lusty  calf,  the 
allowance  being  divided  between  2  feedings,  tho  some  advocate  feed- 
ing 3  or  4  times  a  day  at  first.  The  milk  should  be  as  fresh  as  pos- 
sible and  at  blood  heat,  as  determined  by  a  thermometer.  The  allow- 
ance of  milk  should  be  gradually  increased,  but  over-feeding,  a  com- 
mon cause  of  poor  success  in  calf  rearing,  should  be  avoided.     A 


282  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

safe  rule  is  alwaj^s  to  keep  the  calf  a  little  hungry.  Calves  should  be 
fed  individually,  the  allowance  for  each  being  measured  or  weighed, 
and  the  amount  fed  depending  on  the  size  and  vigor  of  the  individual. 
Guernsey  and  Jersey  calves  require  not  over  8  to  10  lbs.  daily  for  the 
first  3  to  4  weeks,  and  those  of  the  larger  breeds  not  over  10  to  12  lbs. 

Feeding  skim  milk. — When  the  calf  is  from  2  to  4  weeks  old,  skim 
milk  may  gradually  replace  the  whole  milk  at  the  rate  of  0.5  to  1  lb. 
per  day,  a  week  or  10  days  being  required  for  the  change.  With  very 
rich  milk,  some  prefer  to  dilute  with  skim  milk  from  the  start.  A 
few  breeders  feed  some  whole  milk  for  as  long  as  2  months. 

After  changing  to  skim  milk  the  allowance  may  be  increased  grad- 
ually, but  should  not  exceed  18  lbs.  daily  until  the  calf  is  6  weeks  old, 
and  only  in  rare  cases  should  over  20  lbs.  daily  be  fed.  Skim  milk  is 
at  its  best  when,  still  warm,  it  goes  at  once  from  the  farm  separator  to 
the  calf.  ]\Iilk  held  for  any  length  of  time  or  chilled  should  alwa^'s 
be  warmed  to  blood  temperature,  or  about  100°  F.,  before  feeding. 
When  the  calf  is  3  to  4  months  old  it  may  be  accustomed  to  cooler 
milk  provided  the  temperature  is  reasonablj^  uniform.  The  pails  in 
which  the  milk  is  fed  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean.  Feeding 
cold  skim  milk  or  that  which  is  sour,  stale,  and  swarming  with  unde- 
sirable bacteria  is  the  common  cause  of  scours.  Patrons  of  creameries 
should  insist  that  all  skim  milk  be  pasteurized  before  it  is  returned 
to  the  farm.  This  precaution  not  only  keeps  the  milk  sweet  longer 
but  it  kills  the  disease-producing  bacteria,  thereby  lessening  trouble 
from  scours  and  preventing  the  possible  introduction  of  tuberculosis. 
Skim-milk  feeding  should  usually  continue  for  8  to  10  months,  but 
when  the  supply  of  milk  is  scant  a  thrifty  calf  may  be  weaned  after 
3  months,  provided  good  substitutes  for  milk  are  fed,  as  shown  later. 

At  feeding  time  hand-reared  calves  should  be  confined  in  stanchions, 
to  remain  for  a  time  after  the  milk  is  drunk  until  they  consume  their 
concentrate  allowance  and  overcome  the  desire  to  suck  each  other's 
ears  or  udders.  When  this  precaution  is  neglected,  the  shape  of  the 
udder  may  be  injured  or  a  heifer  may  later  persist  in  sucking  herself 
or  others. 

Feeding  concentrates. — When  1  to  2  weeks  old  the  calf  should  be 
taught  to  eat  concentrates.  Such  feeds  as  corn  meal,  sieved  ground 
oats,  barley  meal,  kafir  meal,  wheat  bran,  red  dog  flour,  and  linseed 
meal,  alone  or  in  mixture,  may  be  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  pail 
after  the  calf  has  finished  drinking  its  milk.  Some  add  the  concen- 
trates to  the  milk,  but  this  is  inadvisable  for  the  meal  is  then  less 
thoroly  mixed  with  the  saliva.  The  addition  of  such  concentrates  as 
bran  or  linseed  meal  to  the  farm  grains  may  be  helpful  in  teaching 
the  calf  to  eat.     The  dull  calf  may  be  taught  to  eat  the  meal  by  rub- 


RAISING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


283 


bing  a  little  on  its  muzzle  when  it  is  thru  drinking  milk.  Having 
learned  the  taste  of  the  meal,  the  calf  should  be  fed  its  allowance  dry 
from  a  convenient  feed  box.  Until  it  becomes  accustomed  to  the  new 
article  of  diet,  a  supply  of  meal  may  be  kept  before  it.  After  this, 
only  as  much  should  be  fed  as  will  be  eaten  up,  and  the  feed  box 
should  be  cleaned  out  regularly.  At  6  weeks  the  calf  will  usually 
eat  0.5  lb.  of  concentrates  a  day ;  at  2  months,  about  1  lb. ;  and  at  3 
months,  2  lbs.  Unless  it  is  desired  to  push  the  animal  ahead  rapidly 
no  more  than  this  need  be  fed  the  skim-milk  calf  up  to  6  months.^ 


Home-Made  Stanchions  for  Calves 


Calves  should  be  confined  in  stanchions  at  feeding  time  until  they  eat  their 
concentrates  and  overcome  the  desire  to  suck  each  others  ears  or  udders.  ( From 
Wisconsin  Station.) 


Concentrates  for  skim-milk  calves. — Since  skim  milk  is  very  rich 
in  protein,  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  protein-rich  feeds,  such  as  linseed 
or  flaxseed  meal,  as  concentrates  for  skim-milk  calves.  The  farm- 
grown  grains,  such  as  corn,  oats,  barley,  and  kafir,  give  fully  as  good 
results  and  are  ordinarily  the  cheapest  concentrates  available.  ]\Iix- 
ing  small  amounts  of  such  well-liked  feeds  as  linseed  meal  or  bran 
with  the  grain  may  sometimes  be  advantageous  to  make  the  ration 
more  palatable.  In  teaching  calves  to  eat,  ground  grain  is  usually 
fed,  but  later  whole  corn  or  oats  gives  as  good  or  even  better  results 

1  Eckles,  Dairy   Cattle  and  Milk  Production,   p.    184. 


284  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

than  the  ground  grain.  When  the  calves  are  several  months  old,  they 
chew  their  feed  less  thoroly  and  grinding  oats  or  corn  may  then 
be  profitable.     Barley  and  kafir  should  always  be  ground. 

The  following  list  by  Otis  ^  will  aid  dairymen  in  selecting  feeds  for 
skim-milk  calves: 

"1.  Corn  meal  gradually  changed  in  4  to  6  weeks  to  slielled  corn  with  or 
without  bran. 

"2.  Whole  oats  and  bran. 

"3.  Whole  oats  and  corn  chop,  the  latter  gradually  replaced  by  shelled  corn 
in  4  to  6  weeks. 

"4.  Ground  barley  with  bran  or  shelled  corn. 

"5.  Shelled  corn  and  ground  kafir  or  sorghum. 

"6.  Whole  oats,  ground  barley,  and  bran. 

"7.  A  mixture  of  20  lbs.  of  corn  meal,  20  lbs.  of  oat  meal,  20  lbs.  of  oil  meal, 
10  lbs.  of  blood  meal,  and  5  lbs.  of  bone  meal,  changed  to  corn,  oats,  and  bran 
when  calves  are  3  months  old. 

"8.  A  mixture  of  5  lbs.  whole  oats,  3  lbs.  bran,  1  lb.  corn  meal,  and  1  lb.  of 
linseed  meal." 

Ground  soybeans  are  unsatisfactory  for  calves  on  account  of  their 
laxative  action.  Cottonseed  meal  is  not  a  safe  feed  for  young  calves, 
but  after  they  are  6  to  8  months  old  they  may  be  started  on  an  allow- 
ance of  0.5  lb.  per  head  daily  and  this  may  be  gradually  increased  to 
2  lbs.,  when  fed  with  silage  and  such  feeds  as  shredded  corn  stover 
and  oat  straw.     Dried  blood  is  helpful  for  sickly  calves. 

Hay  for  calves. — Calves  begin  to  eat  hay  at  about  the  same  age  as 
they  do  grain,  consuming  nearly  the  same  quantity  of  each  at  first. 
As  they  grow  and  the  paunch  develops,  the  proportion  of  roughage  to 
concentrates  should  be  increased  until  when  6  months  old  they  will  be 
consuming  about  3  times  as  much  hay  as  grain.  The  majority  of 
dairymen  prefer  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  but  the  allowance  of  these 
should  be  restricted  when  the  calves  are  young,  to  avoid  scouring. 
Some  prefer  bluegrass,  native,  or  mixed  hay  for  the  first  two  or  three 
months  because  with  these  there  is  less  danger  from  scours.  The 
growing  heifer  should  be  encouraged  to  eat  a  goodly  amount  of  hay 
in  order  to  develop  the  roomy  digestive  tract  desired  in  the  dairy  cow. 
Uneaten  roughage  should  be  removed  from  the  rack  or  manger  before 
the  next  feeding  time,  for  calves  dislike  hay  which  has  been  "blown 
on." 

Succulent  feeds. — A  small  amount  of  silage  from  well-matured 
corn,  free  from  mold,  may  be  fed  to  calves  when  6  to  8  weeks  old,  only 
the  leaves  being  offered  at  first.  From  a  handful  twice  a  day  the 
allowance  of  silage  may  be  gradually  increased  until  the  calves  are 
getting  10  lbs.  per  head  daily  when  a  year  old. 

2  Wis.  Bui.  192. 


RAISING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


285 


Roots  are  also  a  satisfactory  succulent  feed,  and  pasture  is  excellent 
for  calves  old  enough  to  make  good  use  of  it.  To  avoid  scours,  they 
should  be  accustomed  to  grass  gradually,  being  turned  to  pasture  for 
only  an  hour  the  first  day.  Another  method  is  to  accustom  them  to 
green  feed  by  giving  increasing  allowances  of  soilage  before  turning 
to  pasture.  It  is  well  not  to  turn  spring  or  summer  calves  to  pasture 
until  they  are  2  to  4  months  old,  for  there  is  less  trouble  from  scours 
and  the  young  things  suffer  less  from  the  flies  and  heat. 

Birth  weights  and  gains  of  calves.— The  average  birth  weight  o£ 
calves  of  the  leading  dairy  breeds  is  as  follows :  Jersey,  55  lbs. ;  Guem- 


FiG.  80. — Ractk  and  Trough  for  Feeding  Hay  and  Grain 

The  growing  heifer  should  be  encouraged  to  eat  plenty  of  roughage  in  order  to 
develop  a  roomy  digestive  tract.      (From  Hoard's  Dairyman.) 


sey,  71 ;  Ayrshire,  76 ;  and  Holstein,  89.  Bull  calves  are  heavier  than 
heifers,  and  calves  from  mature  cows  are  somewhat  heavier  at  birth 
than  those  from  heifers. 

Properly  fed  on  skim  milk,  along  with  suitable  grains  and  roughage, 
the  thrifty  calf  should  gain  about  1.5  lbs.  daily  for  the  first  4  to  6 
months.  The  aim  should  be  not  to  fatten  the  calf  but  to  keep  it  in  a 
vigorous,  growing  condition. 

Calves  should  be  amply  supplied  with  pure,  fresh  water,  a  point 
which  is  often  neglected,  and  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  eat  grain  and 
hay  they  should  get  salt,  the  same  as  do  older  animals. 


286  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


II.     Raising  Calves  on  Skim-milk  Substitutes 

"With  dairymen  who  produce  milk  for  city  consumption,  for  cheese 
making,  or  for  the  condenseries,  the  rearing  of  calves  on  skim-milk 
substitutes  is  of  great  importance. 

Buttermilk  and  whey. — Fresh  buttermilk  is  perhaps  the  best  sub- 
stitute for  skim  milk,  but  the  watery  slop  sometimes  obtained  from 
creameries,  often  from  filthy  tanks,  is  almost  sure  to  cause  scours. 
The  whey  usually  obtained  from  the  cheese  factory,  acid  and  often 
loaded  with  germs  that  cause  indigestion,  is  unsuited  for  calf  feeding. 
Sweet,  undiluted  whey  which  has  been  pasteurized  may  give  fair  re- 
sults when  fed  under  the  strictest  rules  as  to  quantity,  regularity  of 
feeding,  and  cleanliness  of  the  vessels  employed.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that,  instead  of  being  a  protein-rich  food  like  skim  milk, 
whey  is  relatively  poor  in  this  nutrient.  Accordingly,  instead  of 
the  cereal  grains,  feeds  high  in  protein,  such  as  wheat  bran,  wheat 
middlings,  and  linseed  meal,  should  be  fed  with  it. 

Feeding  a  minimum  amount  of  milk. — In  trials  at  the  Illinois 
Station  ^  it  was  found  that  after  the  dam 's  milk  was  usable  calves 
could  be  raised  successfully  on  a  total  of  only  137  to  167  lbs.  of  whole 
milk  and  378  to  491  lbs.  of  skim  milk,  with  good  clover  hay  and  such 
concentrates  as  bran,  oats,  linseed  meal,  and  corn.  The  method  used 
was  as  follows : 

The  calves  were  fed  whole  milk  for  the  first  4  days,  and  then,  starting  with 
the  fifth  day,  10  lbs.  of  whole  milk  and  2  lbs.  of  skim  milk  was  fed  daily  per 
calf  for  about  10  days,  after  which  the  whole  milk  was  gradually  replaced  with 
skim  milk  at  the  rate  of  1  lb.  per  day.  Each  calf  was  then  fed  12  lbs.  of  skim 
milk  per  day  for  20  days,  or  until  45  days  old,  when  the  allowance  was 
reduced  1  lb.  each  day,  no  milk  being  fed  after  the  calves  were  about  56  days 
old.  The  calves  were  rather  thin  for  a  time,  but  after  being  kept  on  pasture 
with  a  limited  allowance  of  grain  until  6  months  old  all  were  in  good  tlirifty 
pondition,  and  later  several  developed  into  good-producing  cows. 

Substitutes  for  milk. — ^Various  concentrate  mixtures  have  been 
ased  successfully  as  substitutes  for  milk,  the  calves  being  fed  whole 
milk  for  only  a  few  days  and  then  being  gradually  changed  to  the 
substitutes.  The  Pennsylvania  Station*  secured  good  results  with  a 
home-mixed  calf  meal,  composed  of  30  parts  wheat  flour,  25  parts 
coeoanut  meal,  20  parts  skim-milk  powder,  10  parts  linseed  meal,  and 
2  parts  dried  blood,  the  mixture  costing  about  3  cents  per  pound. 
One  pound  of  the  mixture  was  added  to  6  lbs.  of  hot  water,  and  after 
stirring  was  cooled  to  blood  heat  before  feeding.  A  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  hominy  meal,  linseed  meal,  red  dog  fiour,  and  blood  meal  has 

3  Fraser  and  Brand,   111.  Bui.   164.  4  Hayward,  Penn.  Bui.  60 


RAISING  DAIRY  CATTLE  287 

proven  excellent  at  the  Indiana  Station."^  As  calves  grow  older,  farm- 
grown  grains,  as  corn  and  oats,  should  be  fed  in  addition  to  the  calf 
meal,  and  finally  replace  it.  There  are  on  the  market  several  calf 
meals,  which  are  more  or  less  complex  mixtures  of  such  feeds  as  lin- 
seed meal  or  flaxseed  meal,  ground  cereals,  and  wheat  by-products, 
with  or  without  dried  milk,  casein,  and  mild  drugs.  They  are  fairly 
satisfactory  substitutes  for  skim  milk,  but  often  give  no  better  returns 
than  home-mixed  meals  that  are  less  expensive. 

Scours. — -The  most  frequent  trouble  in  raising  calves  by  hand  is 
indigestion,  or  common  scours.  This  is  usually  caused  by  over-feed- 
ing, by  the  use  of  cold  milk  or  that  laden  with  disease  germs,  by  dirty 
pails  or  feed  boxes,  by  keeping  calves  in  dark,  dirty,  poorly-ventilated 
stalls,  or  by  feeding  improper  concentrates,  or  allowing  uneaten  feed 
to  spoil  in  the  feed  box.  Each  animal  should  be  watched  closely  for 
signs  of  scours,  for  a  severe  case  gives  the  calf  a  set-back  from  which 
it  recovers  but  slowly.  At  the  first  indication  of  trouble  the  ration 
should  be  reduced  to  less  than  half  the  usual  amount.  Such  remedies 
as  castor  oil,  formalin,  and  a  mixture  of  salol  and  bismuth  subnitrate 
are  used  with  success  by  dairymen. 

Common  scours  should  be  distinguished  from  contagious,  or  white, 
scours,  also  called  calf  cholera,  vv^hich  is  due  to  an  infection  of  the 
navel  soon  after  birth.  This  serious  disease  may  usually  be  avoided 
by  providing  that  the  calf  be  dropped  in  a  clean  stall  or  on  pasture. 
When  the  calf  is  born  in  the  barn,  it  is  best  to  wet  the  navel  thoroly 
with  a  disinfectant,  such  as  a  weak  solution  of  creoline,  zenoleum,  or 
bichloride  of  mercury. 

III.    Dairy  Heifers  j  The  Bull 

Feed  and  care  of  heifers.— Rearing  heifers  after  they  are  6  to  8 
months  old  is  an  easy  task,  and  doubtless  for  this  reason  many  are 
stunted  for  lack  of  suitable  attention  and  fail  to  develop  into  as  profit- 
able cows  as  they  otherwise  would.  Heifers  on  good  pasture  usually 
require  no  additional  feed.  In  winter  there  is  no  better  ration  than 
legume  hay,  silage,  and  sufficient  grain  to  keep  them  thrifty  and  grow- 
ing without  becoming  fat.  The  ration  should  supply  an  abundance 
of  protein  and  mineral  matter,  and  hence  unless  legume  hay  forms 
the  roughage  the  concentrate  allowance  should  be  richer  in  protein 
than  advised  for  skim-milk  calves.  From  2  to  3  lbs.  of  concentrates 
with  8  to  10  lbs.  of  legume  hay  and  12  to  20  lbs.  of  silage,  or  12  to  15 
lbs.  of  legume  hay  alone,  if  no  silage  is  available,  will  keep  them  grow- 
ing thriftily  the  second  year  when  not  on  pasture. 

5  Caldwell,  information  to  the  authors. 


288  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

The  age  at  which  heifers  should  drop  their  first  calf  depends  on 
the  breed  and  the  size  and  development  of  the  individual.  Jerseys 
and  Guernseys  which  have  been  well-fed  are  usually  bred  to  calve  at 
24  to  30  months  of  age,  while  the  slower  maturing  Holsteius,  Ayr- 
shires,  or  Brown  Swiss  should  not  calve  until  30  to  36  months  old. 

The  cost  of  raising  heifers  will  varj'  in  different  regions,  depending 
on  the  prices  of  feed,  labor,  etc.  In  trials  in  Connecticut  "^  and  Wis- 
consin ^  the  total  cost  of  raising  grade  heifers  to  2  years  of  age,  includ- 
ing cost  of  calf,  feed,  labor,  and  barn  rent,  insurance,  and  taxes,  but 
allowing  credit  for  the  value  of  the  manure  produced,  was  from  $61  to 
over  $66  per  head.  Some  of  these  items  are  often  not  taken  into  con- 
sideration by  the  dairyman  in  estimating  how  much  it  costs  to  raise 
heifers.  These  trials  show  that  while  it  certainly  pays  to  raise  well- 
bred  heifer  calves,  it  is  far  from  profitable  to  raise  those  from  inferior 
dams  and  sires. 

The  bull. — The  same  principles  apply  in  raising  bull  calves  as  to 
heifers,  except  that  after  6  months  of  age  they  should  be  fed  some- 
what more  grain.  The  bull  should  be  sufficiently  mature  for  very  light 
service  at  10  to  12  months  of  age.  He  should  be  halter  broken  as  a 
calf  and  when  about  1  year  old  should  have  a  stout  ring  inserted  in 
his  nose.  He  should  be  so  handled  from  calfhood  that  he  will  recog- 
nize man  as  his  master  and  should  never  be  given  an  opportunity  to 
learn  his  great  strength.  Stall  and  fences  should  always  be  so 
strongly  built  that  there  is  no  possibility  of  his  learning  how  to  break 
loose. 

Feed  and  care  of  the  bull. — The  ration  for  the  bull  in  full  service 
should  be  about  the  same  as  for  a  dairy  cow  in  milk.  He  should  be 
given  good  legume  hay  or  hay  from  mixed  legumes  and  grasses  and 
fed  from  4  to  8  lbs.  of  concentrates,  supplying  an  ample  amount  of 
protein.  When  idle  or  but  in  partial  service  less  concentrates  will  lie 
required.  The  bull  may  be  fed  10  to  15  lbs.  of  good  com  silage  each 
day  ^  but  more  is  said  to  injure  his  breeding  powers.  The  bull  should 
be  tied  by  a  strong  halter  to  one  end  of  the  manger  and  by  his  ring 
to  the  other  end,  so  that  the  attendant  may  approach  him  from  either 
side  without  danger.  The  bull  should  be  dehorned  and  should  always 
be  handled  with  a  strong,  safe  staff.  Even  with  a  quiet,  peaceable  bull 
safety  lies  only  in  handling  him  without  displaying  fear  and  yet  as 
if  he  were  watching  for  an  opportunity  to  gore  his  attendant.  Nearly 
all  the  accidents  occur  with  "quiet"  bulls  that  have  been  too  much 
trusted. 

eTrueman,   Conn.    (Storrs)    Bui.   63. 

7  Bennett  and  Cooper,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  49. 

s  Hoard's  Dairyman,   46,   1914,   p.   339. 


RAISING  DAIRY  CATTLE  289 

To  maintain  health  and  virility,  the  bull  must  have  ample  exercise. 
This  is  perhaps  most  conveniently  furnished  by  a  tread  power,  where 
he  may  run  the  separator,  pump  water,  do  other  useful  work,  or  run 
the  power  for  exercise  only.  Many  declare  that  the  purchase  of  a 
tread  power  merely  to  furnish  exercise  for  the  bull  is  a  wise  invest- 
ment. Others  fix  a  long  sweep  on  a  post  and  tie  the  bull  at  the  end, 
allowing  him  to  walk  around  the  circle.  Another  device  is  a  light 
cable  stretched  between  2  high  posts,  the  bull  being  attached  to  it  by  a 
sliding  chain  so  that  he  is  able  to  walk  back  and  forth  the  length  of 
the  cable.  The  bull  may  also  be  harnessed  and  hitched  to  cart  or 
wagon  for  such  odd  jobs  as  hauling  manure  or  feed. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  should  dairymen  rear  the  heifer  calves  from  their  best  cows? 

2.  Describe  the  manner  in  which  you  would  feed  a  skim-milk  calf  from  birth. 

3.  Name  several  concentrates  or  mixtures  of  concentrates  satisfactory  for 
feeding  to  calves  being  raised  on  skim  milk. 

4.  Tell  about  the  hays  and  succulent  feeds  useful  for  calf  feeding. 

5.  What  is  the  average  birth  weight  of  calves  of  the  four  leading  dairy  breeds, 
and  hoAv  large  gains  should  well-fed  calves  make? 

6.  Name  the  most  common  causes  of  trouble  with  skim-milk  fed  calves. 

7.  Discuss  the  feeding  of  buttermilk  and  whey  to  calves. 

8.  How  may  calves  be  raised  on  l)ut  a  minimum  of  milk? 

9.  Give  the  ingredients  in  a  satisfactory  calf  meal. 

10.  How  may  common  scours  and  contagious  scours  usually  be  prevented? 

11.  Discuss  the  feeding  and  care  of  dairy  heifers;   of  the  bull. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

FEEDIiNG  AND  CARE  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 

I.     Factors  Influencing  Beef  Production 

In  1900  there  were  about  660  cattle,  other  than  milch  cows,  per 
1,000  inhabitants  in  this  country,  but  in  1910  the  number  had  de- 
creased to  450,  and  later  estimates  indicate  a  further  failure  of  beef 
cattle  to  keep  pace  with  population.  Among  the  reasons  for  this  con- 
dition are  the  breaking  up  of  the  western  ranges  into  farms,  the  high 
prices  for  grain  and  the  consequent  tendency  of  farmers  to  sell  their 
crops  rather  than  feed  them  to  stock,  the  increase  of  tenant  farmers, 
who  often  lack  capital  to  stock  their  farms  properly,  the  expansion  of 
dairying  due  to  the  increasing  demand  for  dairy  products,  and  the 
fact  that  not  infrequently  the  fat  steer  is  sold  at  a  loss. 

Fortunately  for  the  American  public,  which  is  loath  to  give  up  beef 
as  a  common  article  of  diet,  our  experiment  stations  are  pointing  out 
how  the  cost  of  beef  production  may  be  brought  down  to  where  it  may 
yield  a  reasonable  profit  to  the  farmer  without  the  finished  product 
being  unduly  costly  to  the  consumer.  The  trials  reviewed  in  these 
chapters  show  how  the  breeding  herd  may  be  maintained  cheaply  by 
utilizing  the  roughage  which  w^ould  otherwise  be  wasted  on  the  farm, 
and  the  steer  finished  for  market  on  a  smaller  allowance  of  concen- 
trates than  was  formerly  believed  necessary. 

Phases  of  beef  production. — Tho  many  cattle  are  still  fattened  by 
the  farmers  who  raise  them,  beef  production  has  naturally  become 
separated  to  a  considerable  extent  into  two  distinct  phases.  In  re- 
gions where  the  land  is  unsuited  for  tillage,  due  either  to  its  rough 
nature  or  the  scant  rainfall,  breeding  herds  are  maintained  and  the  in- 
crease, raised  chiefly  on  the  cheap  pasturage,  sold  as  feeder  steers. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  the  corn  belt,  w^here  corn  is  cheap  compared 
with  pasturage,  the  majority  of  the  steers  fattened  are  shipped  in 
from  the  range  districts,  where  they  can  be  raised  at  less  cost.  Altho 
many  steers  are  still  fed  by  farmers  who  handle  only  a  few  head 
each  year,  the  business  has  largely  passed  into  the  hands  of  pro- 
fessional feeders,  who  fatten  from  one  to  many  carloads  of  animals 
annually.     In  many  instances  the   large   operators  make   but  little 

290 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  BEEF  CATTLE        291 

use  of  the  manure  produced  and  purchase  much  of  their  feed.  On 
such  a  basis  the  enterprise  is  largely  speculative. 

Margin. — Under  usual  conditions,  the  feed  consumed  by  fattening 
cattle  or  sheep  per  100  lbs.  of  gain  costs  more  than  the  selling 
price  per  cwt.  of  the  finished  animal.  With  normal  market  condi- 
tions, this  difference  is  offset  by  the  fattened  animals  selling  for  a 
higher  price  per  100  lbs.  than  was  paid  for  the  same  animals  as 
feeders.  The  difference  between  the  cost  per  cwt.  of  the  feeder  and 
the  selling  price  per  cwt.  of  the  same  animal  when  fattened  is  called 
the  margin.  The  principle  of  the  margin  may  be  illustrated  thus: 
If  a  1,000-lb.  steer  costs  $7.00  per  cwt.  when  placed  in  the  feed  lot, 
its  total  cost  is  $70.00.  If  during  fattening  it  gains  400  lbs.  at  a  feed 
cost  of  $;36.00,  each  cwt.  of  gain  has  cost  $9.00.  Assuming  that  the 
manure  produced  pays  for  the  labor,  the  steer,  now  weighing  1,400 
lbs.,  has  cost  $106.00  and  accordingly  must  bring  $7.57  per  cwt.  at 
the  feed  lot  to  even  the  transaction.  Here  the  margin  will  be  $0.57, 
the  difference  between  $7.57  and  $7.00.  On  account  of  the  high 
cost  of  the  gains,  a  margin  must  usually  be  secured  in  fattening 
cattle  or  sheep  to  make  a  profit  or  "break  even." 

The  factors  which  determine  the  margin  needed  in  fattening  are: 
(1)  the  initial  cost  of  the  cattle;  (2)  their  initial  weight;  (3)  the  cost 
of  the  gains;  and  (4)  the  expense  of  getting  the  steers  to  the  feed 
lot  and  then  to  the  market,  when  finished. 

Other  conditions  remaining  the  same,  the  higher  the  initial  cost 
or  purchase  price  of  the  feeder  the  narrower,  or  smaller,  is  the  neces- 
sary margin.  For  example,  let  us  assume  that  a  feeder  steer  weigh- 
ing 1,000  lbs.  is  fed  until  he  has  reached  a  weight  of  1,300  lbs.,  the 
gain  costing  10  cents  per  pound  for  feed.  If  the  feeder  costs  $4.00 
per  cwt.  in  the  feed  lot,  it  will  have  to  sell  for  $70.00,  or  $5.38  per 
cwt.,  to  break  even.  The  necessary  margin  is  $5.38  —  $4.00  ^$1.38. 
Had  the  feeder  been  bought  for  $7.00  per  cwt.,  no  money  would  be  lost 
if  it  were  sold  for  $100.00,  or  $7.69  per  cwt.  at  the  feed  lot.  In 
this  case  the  necessary  margin  is  only  $0.69. 

The  heavier  the  animal  is  when  placed  on  feed  the  narrower  will 
be  the  necessary  margin,  for  the  increased  selling  price  is  secured  for 
a  greater  number  of  pounds  of  initial  weight.  This  factor  may  be 
offset,  as  is  shown  later,  if  the  heavier  cattle  are  older  and  hence 
make  more  expensive  gains. 

It  is  evident  that  any  factor  which  increases  the  feed  cost  of  the 
gains  makes  necessary  a  wider  margin.  The  necessary  margin  is 
thus  greater  when  feeds  are  high  in  price,  and  also  with  mature 
animals  than  with  younger  ones,  which  make  more  economical  gains. 
Since  gains  made  on  grass  are  usually  cheaper  than  in  the  dry  lot,  a 


292  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

wider  margin  is  required  for  winter  feeding  than  in  fattening  ani- 
mals on  pasture.  The  higher  the  degree  of  finish,  or  fatness,  the 
more  expensive  the  gains  become  and  the  wider  the  necessary  margin. 
Feed  requirements  for  fattening  cattle. — In  Chapter  V  we  have 
already  seen  that  with  mature  animals  there  is  comparatively  little 
storage  of  protein  or  mineral  matter  during  fattening  and  that  the 
ration  may  have  a  relatively  wide  nutritive  ratio.  However,  most  of 
the  beef  cattle  in  this  country  are  now  fattened  before  they  are  full- 
grown.  For  the  fattening  of  such  animals  sufficient  protein  must  be 
provided  for  the  growth  in  muscle  and  other  protein  tissues  which 
takes  place  as  the  animals  fatten.  From  an  extensive  survey  of  feed- 
ing trials  at  the  experiment  stations,  the  authors  believe  that  for  the 


Fig.  81. — Championship  Yearling  Fat  Steers  at  nn: 
International 

Yearlings  usually  make  less  expensive  gains  than  older  steers,  but  require  a 
somewhat  longer  feeding  period  to  reach  the  same  finish. 

most  rapid  gains  in  fattening  2-year-old  steers  the  nutritive  ratio 
should  not  be  wider  than  1:7  to  1:7.8.  (See  Appendix  Table  V.) 
When  protein-rich  feeds  are  lower  in  price  than  carbonaceous  feeds, 
it  may  be  economical  to  feed  much  narrower  rations  than  this.  For 
example,  good  results  are  secured  when  cottonseed  meal  is  fed  as  the 
only  concentrate,  the  nutritive  ratio  then  being  as  narrow  as  1 :  3.8. 
As  is  shown  later  in  this  chapter,  the  amount  of  concentrates  to  be 
fed  will  depend  on  the  rapidity  with  which  it  is  desired  to  fatten  the 
cattle,  and  the  degree  of  finish  or  fatness  which  the  demands  of  the 
market  make  most  profitable. 

Influence  of  age  on  cost  of  fattening. — In  Chapter  V  we  have  al- 
ready seen  that  young,   growing  animals  make  much  larger  gains 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  BEEF  CATTLE       293 

from  each  100  lbs.  of  feed  than  those  which  are  more  mature.  As 
this  subject  is  of  much  importance  in  beef  production,  many  trials 
have  been  conducted  to  compare  the  economy  of  gains  and  the  profits 
from  fattening  calves,  yearlings,  2-year-olds,  and  older  cattle.  The 
following  table  averages  the  results  secured  in  two  trials  of  this 
nature  at  the  Indiana  Station  ^  with  well-bred  beef  steers  fed  until 
they  were  thoroly  fattened. 

Fattening  calves,  yearlings,  and  2-year-olds 

Calves       Yearlings  2-yr.-olds 

Av.  initial  weight,  lbs 518  888  1,067 

Length  of  feeding  period,  months 9                  6.5  6 

Av.  daily  gain,  lbs 1.88             2.22  2.6 

Av.  total  gain,  lbs 508  431  471 

Feed  per  100  lbs.  gain  by  steers: 

Shelled  corn,  lbs 596  704    *  681 

Cottonseed  meal,  lbs 88  111  108 

Clover  hay,  lbs 168  165  160 

Corn  silage,  lbs 385  660  573 

Feed  cost  per  100  lbs.  gain  * $7.74  $9.09  $9.37 

Pork  per  bushel  of  corn  fed  to  steers,  lbs.* 1.00             1.85  2.50 

*  Av.  of  3  trials. 

While  it  required  only  6  months  to  make  the  2-year-old  steers 
fat  enough  to  sell  as  prime  beeves,  it  took  9  months  to  finish  the 
rapidly  growing  calves  equally  well.  Tho  the  daily  gain  per  head 
increased  with  the  age  of  the  steers,  the  older  ones  required  con- 
siderably more  feed  per  100  lbs.  gain,  and  thus  made  more  expensive 
gains.  Other  trials  have  shown  that  the  gains  of  3-year-olds  are 
still  more  expensive  than  those  of  2-year-olds.  As  is  usual,  the  older 
steers  in  this  trial  masticated  the  shelled  corn  less  thoroly,  and  hence 
the  pigs  following  them  made  more  pork  from  each  bushel  of  corn 
fed  the  steers. 

Calves  usually  cost  more  per  100  lbs.  as  feeders  than  do  yearlings 
or  2-year-olds,  but  when  fat  sell  at  about  the  same  price  per  100 
lbs.  as  the  older  animals.  This  may  entirely  offset  the  cheaper  gains 
made  by  them.  For  example,  in  these  trials  the  2-year-olds  returned 
the  largest  and  the  calves  the  smallest  profit  per  head.  In  addition, 
greater  care  and  skill  are  required  to  fatten  calves,  they  do  not  stand 
severe  weather  so  well,  and  must  be  fed  a  larger  proportion  of  grain 
to  roughage  than  the  more  mature .  feeders.  For  these  reasons,  the 
great  majority  of  experienced  farmers  who  buy  feeder  steers  to 
fatten  prefer  2-year-olds.  On  the  other  hand,  many  farmers  who 
raise  their  own  steers  on  high-priced  land  find  it  most  profitable  to 
produce  baby  beef,  selling  the  animals  when  18  months  old  or  less. 

1  Skinner  and  Cochel,  Ind.  Bui.  146. 


294 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


Influence  of  degree  of  finish.^Impelled  by  a  hearty  appetite, 
under  liberal  feeding  the  steer  at  first  lays  on  fat  rapidly,  storing  it 
everywhere  within  the  body.  When  it  has  become  fairly  well-fleshed 
the  appetite  loses  its  edge,  and  the  steer  shows  a  daintiness  in  taking 
his  food  not  at  first  noticed.  Every  pound  of  increase  now  takes 
more  feed  than  formerly.  This  is  not  only  because  the  steer  eats 
less  feed  per  1,000  lbs.  body  weight  and  hence  has  less  available  for 
making  body  tissue,  but  also  because  gains  at  the  close  of  the  fattening 
period  are  more  concentrated ;  i.e.,  contain  less  water  and  a  larger 
proportion  of  fat.     The  fattening  process  may  be  likened  to  inflating 


Fig.  82. 


-Championship  2-Year-Old  Fat  Steers  at  the 
International 


The  great  majority  of  experienced  farmers  ^Yho  buy  feeder  steers  to  fatten 
prefer  2-year-olds.  Many  of  those  who  raise  their  own  feeders  on  high-priced 
land  find  it  more  profitable  to  fatten  the  animals  as  baby  beef. 


a  football — the  operation,  easy  and  rapid  at  first,  grows  more  and 
more  difficult  until  the  limit  is  reached. 

Tho  the  large  markets  demand  well-fatted  steers,  to  meet  the  de- 
mand it  is  not  necessary  to  carry  them  to  extreme  fatness,  which 
means  exceedingly  expensive  gains.  The  wise  feeder  will  therefore 
watch  the  market  and  sell  his  animals  as  soon  as  they  are  sufficiently 
finished  to  meet  its  demands,  unless  a  probable  decided  advance  in 
price  warrants  holding  them  longer.  At  this  stage  sufficient  fat  will 
have  been  deposited  between  the  bundles  of  muscle  fibers  to  give  the 
characteristic  "marbled"  appearance  and  make  the  meat  more  tender 
and  palatable.  As  we  have  seen  in  Chapter  V,  this  is  the  primary 
object  of  fattening  meat-producing  animals. 

Length  of  feeding  period. — The   length   of  the   feeding  period 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  BEEF  CATTLE       295 

needed  to  finish  cattle  depends  on  the  method  of  feeding  followed 
and  on  the  age  and  condition  of  the  cattle  when  placed  on  feed. 
When  the  steers  are  fed  roughage  with  only  a  limited  allowance  of 
concentrates,  the  fattening  process  will  take  considerably  longer  than 
where  they  are  rapidly  brought  to  full  feed  and  then  crowded  with 
all  the  concentrates  they  will  eat.  Obviously,  much  less  time  is  re- 
quired to  finish  steers  already  in  good  flesh  when  started  on  feed  than 
those  in  leaner  condition.  Such  fleshy  feeders  are  commonly  "short- 
fed;"  i.e.,  fed  for  90  to  100  days  or  less  on  a  heavy  allowance  of  con- 
centrates. Thin  steers  must  be  "long-fed;"  i.e.,  fed  for  a  consider- 
ably longer  period,  during  the  first  part  of  which  often  little  or  no 
grain  is  fed  other  than  that  in  the  silage. 


Fig.  83. — Championship  3-Year-Oi  d  Snrr-    w    mi    International 

Steers  of  this  age  are  continually  becoming  more  scarce  on  the  market,  due 
to  the  fact  that  they  produce  beef  less  ecoaomically  than  younger  animals. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  the  younger  the  steers  are,  the  longer 
they  must  be  fed  to  reach  a  given  finish.  While  it  ordinarily  re- 
quires 3  to  4  months  to  finish  mature  steers  and  4  to  7  months  for  2- 
year-olds,  it  takes  9  months  or  longer  to  fatten  calves. 

Limiting  the  concentrate  allowance. — To  reduce  the  amount  of 
grain  required,  cattle  are  often  fed  hay  and  silage  during  the  first 
part  of  the  fattening  period,  with  but  little  or  no  concentrates,  even 
if  they  are  later  finished  on  all  the  concentrates  they  will  eat. 
Whether  this  .system  will  be  more  profitable  than  bringing  the  cattle 
rapidly  to  a  full  fe'ed  of  concentrates,  depends  on  the  relative  cost 
of  roughages  and  concentrates.  In  three  trials  at  the  Indiana  Sta- 
tion ^  the  steers  in  one  lot  were  fed  only  clover  hay  and  corn  silage, 

2  Skinner   and   King,   Ind.    Buls.    153,    1G3,    167. 


296  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

during  the  first  60  to  70  days,  or  else  clover  hay,  corn  silage,  and  2,5 
lbs.  of  cottonseed  meal  per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight  in  addition  to  balance 
the  ration,  and  were  then  finished  on  the  same  feeds  with  all  the  corn 
they  would  eat.  Another  lot  was  fed  an  unlimited  allowance  of  corn 
from  the  first.  Tho  the  steers  in  the  first  lot  made  slightly  cheaper 
gains,  they  returned  less  profit  than  those  fed  all  the  corn  they 
would  eat.  On  the  other  hand,  in  trials  at  the  Pennsylvania  ^  and 
Iowa*  Stations,  limiting  the  allowance  of  concentrates  during  the 
first  of  the  fattening  period  returned  larger  profits.  In  former  years 
steers  were  commonly  finished  on  all  the  corn  or  other  concentrates 
they  would  eat,  but  now  with  concentrates  far  higher  in  price  it  is 
often  more  profitable  to  restrict  the  allowance,  even  during  the 
last  of  the  fattening  period.  The  amount  of  concentrates  to  be  fed 
should  be  governed  by  the  relative  price  of  concentrates  and  rough- 
ages, and  by  the  time  it  is  desired  to  have  the  cattle  ready  for  market. 
In  some  sections  of  the  West  where  alfalfa  hay  is  abundant  and  the 
market  does  not  pay  a  higher  price  for  well-finished  animals  than  for 
those  in  fair  flesh,  fattening  cattle  are  fed  alfalfa  hay  alone  or  alfalfa 
hay  and  other  roughages  with  little  or  no  grain.  Tho  steers  can  not  be 
made  really  fat  by  this  method,  it  results  in  the  greatest  profit  to 
the  feeder. 

Value  of  breed  in  beef  making, — Experience  teaches  that  "blood 
tells"  in  beef  production,  but  the  reasons  commonly  given  for  the 
superiority  of  beef-bred  animals  are  not  all  valid.  Occasionally,  the 
claim  is  yet  made  that  well-bred  beef  cattle  eat  less  than  scrubs. 
Feeding  trials  have  shown  instead  that  they  are  heartier  eaters,  for 
they  have  greater  ability  to  digest  feed  and  economically  convert  it 
into  meat,  and  consequently  make  more  rapid  gains  than  scrubs. 
Dairy-bred  steers,  especially  those  of  the  larger  breeds,  may  make 
as  large  gains  as  beef-bred  steers.  This  is  reasonable,  for  in  de- 
veloping both  beef  and  dairy  breeds  one  of  the  chief  objects  has  been 
to  secure  animals  with  large  capacity  for  utilizing  feed.  In  this  the 
scrub  is  apt  to  be  lacking.  Feeding  trials  have  failed  to  show  that  on 
the  average  beef -bred  steers  require  less  feed  for  100  lbs.  of  gain  than 
healthy,  vigorous  animals  which  lack  beef  type  and  breeding. 

Experienced  feeders  know  that  beef -bred  steers  "mature"  or  be- 
come well  fattened  earlier  than  others.  Indeed,  only  blocky  calves 
of  beef  conformation  are  suited  for  early  fattening  as  baby  beef. 
Tho  dairy  steers  grow  rapidly,  they  do  not  become  well  finished  at 
an  early  age.     Other  important  points  of  superiority  for  beef-bred 

3  Cocliel,  Penn.  Bui.  118;  and  Tomhave  and  Severson,  information  to  the 
authors. 

4  Pew,  Evvard,  and  Dunn,  Breeder's  Gaz.,  69,   1916,  p.  1290. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  BEEF  CATTLE       297 

steers  over  scrubs  and  those  of  the  dairy  breeds  are  that  they  yield 
a  higher  percentage  of  dressed  carcass,  with  less  internal  fat,  which 
brings  a  low  price,  and  a  somewhat  higher  percentage  of  loins  and 
ribs,  the  most  valuable  cuts.  ]\Ioreover,  the  thick-fleshed  cuts  from 
well-finished  beef  steers  are  superior  in  quality  to  the  thin-fleshed 
cuts  of  steers  lacking  beef  blood,  and  consequently  bring  a  higher 
price  on  discriminating  markets. 

For  the  beef  producer  who  raises  the  animals  he  fattens,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  well-bred  specimens  of  the  beef  breeds  are  the  most  profit- 
able. The  question  is  more  complicated  for  one  who  purchases  feed- 
ers on  the  market.  He  must  consider  the  price  at  which  he  can  se- 
cure the  various  grades  and  their  probable  selling  price  when  fat- 
tened. Opportunities  for  larger  profits  and  larger  losses  as  well  lie 
with  the  better  grades  of  feeders.  The  beginner  is  therefore  wise  in 
first  handling  feeders  of  the  commoner  kinds,  which  must  be  pur- 
chased at  correspondingly  lower  prices,  since  the  margin  for  profit 
in  feeding  low-grade  cattle  is  usually  small. 

Shelter. — Trials  at  several  stations  in  which  steers  have  been  fat- 
tened in  open  sheds  with  adjacent  yards  in  comparison  with  others 
housed  in  barns  show  that  the  fattening  steer,  consuming  an  abundant 
ration,  a  considerable  portion  of  which  is  roughage,  has  no  need  for 
warm  winter  quarters.  With  such  animals  sufficient  heat  is  produced 
in  the  body  thru  the  mastication,  digestion,  and  assimilation  of  the 
food  to  keep  them  warm  under  all  ordinary  weather  conditions,  with- 
out diminishing  the  amount  of  net  nutrients  available  for  fattening. 
A  reasonable  degree  of  cold  is  a  benefit  rather  than  a  detriment,  pro- 
viding the  coats  of  the  animals  are  kept  dry.  Feeding  in  open  yards 
with  no  shelter  other  than  windbreaks  is  common  in  western  sections 
with  little  rainfall,  even  in  regions  with  rigorous  winters.  For  humid 
regions  with  severe  winters  an  open  shed  should  be  provided  where 
the  animals  may  find  shelter  from  storms.  In  the  South  where  the 
winters  are  mild  the  saving  thru  providing  shelter  may  not  be  suffi- 
cient to  warrant  the  expense. 

The  self  feeder. — By  the  use  of  a  self  feeder,  a  large  box  or  bin 
so  arranged  that  the  grain  passes  down  into  the  feed  trough  as 
rapidly  as  it  is  consumed,  it  is  necessary  to  supply  fattening  cattle 
with  concentrates  only  twice  a  week.  In  a  trial  at  the  Illinois  Sta- 
tion ^  one  lot  of  steers  was  fed  whole  clover  hay  and  a  concentrate 
mixture  of  7  parts  ground  corn  and  1  part  linseed  meal  separately 
at  regular  feeding  periods  twice  daily,  while  another  was  supplied 
chaffed  (cut)  hay  mixed  with  the  concentrates,  the  whole  being  fed 
in  a  self  feeder  to  which  the  cattle  had  access  at  all  times. 

sMumford  and  Allison,  111.   Bui.   142. 


298 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


The  self-fed  steers  consumed  a  heavier  concentrate  allowance  and 
were  brought  to  full  feed  in  a  shorter  time  without  any  set  back 
from  over-eating.  Tho  consuming  more  feed  than  Lot  I,  this  was 
more  than  offset  by  their  larger  gains.  Even  after  adding  the  cost 
of  chaffing  the  hay,  the  self-fed  steers  made  the  cheaper  gains.  Both 
systems  required  about  the  same  amount  of  labor,  but  by  the  use  of 
the  self  feeder  the  necessity  for  a  man  skilled  in  feeding  was  reduced. 
In  a  trial  at  the  Iowa  Station  ^  2  lots  of  996-lb.  steers  were  fed  for 


Fig.  84. — Quiet  Is  Highly  Important  in  IMaking  Beef 

Cattle  which  "eat  and  lie  down"  make  much  more  economical  gains  than  those 
which  are  restless  and  active.      (From  Breeder's  Gazette.) 


160  days  on  shelled  corn,  linseed  meal,  corn  silage,  and  alfalfa  hay, 
one  lot  being  fed  the  com  in  a  self  feeder  and  the  other  by  hand. 
The  self-fed  steers  made  slightly  the  larger  gains  and  returned  the 
most  profit  over  cost  of  feed. 

Water;  salt. — Fattening  cattle  should  have  an  abundant  supply 
of  pure  water  at  all  times.  Separate  water  troughs  should  be  pro- 
vided for  pigs  running  with  the  steers.     While  it  is  best  to  have  water 

6  Pew,  Evvard,  and  Dunn,  Breeder's  Gaz.,  69,  1916,  p.  1290. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  BEEF  CATTLE        299 

before  cattle  at  all  times,  they  readily  adapt  themselves  to  taking  a 
fill  once  daily  and  thrive.  The  water  provision  should  not  be  less 
than  10  gallons  per  day  per  head  for  mature  cattle. 

Animals  consuming  large  quantities  of  rich,  nutritious  food,  as  are 
fattening  steers,  show  a  strong  desire  for  salt,  and  this  craving  should 
be  reasonably  satisfied. 

Hints  on  fattening  cattle. — In  fattening  cattle  it  is  important  that 
they  be  accustomed  to  corn  or  other  concentrates  gradually  or  di- 
gestive trouble  will  result.  At  first  give  all  the  roughage  they  will 
clean  up,  with  but  2  lbs.  of  concentrates  per  head  daily,  increasing 
1  lb.  or  less  each  day  until  10  lbs.  is  fed.  Any  further  increase  should 
be  still  more  gradual.  The  majority  of  cattlemen  feed  concentrates 
and  roughage  twice  a  day  in  winter  and  once  a  day  on  pasture  in 
summer. 

The  best  results  are  secured  only  when  the  cattle  are  fed  at  regular 
hours  and  when  the  attendant  is  quiet  and  kind  at  all  times,  so  that 
the  animals  trust  rather  than  fear  him.  In  parts  of  the  corn  belt 
the  feed  lot  in  winter  is  often  a  sea  of  mud.  Under  such  conditions 
the  steers  cannot  be  expected  to  make  the  best  gains.  Cattle  of  the 
same  age,  or  at  least  those  of  equal  size  and  strength,  should  be  fed 
in  the  same  enclosure.  Weak  animals,  and  those  unable  for  any 
reason  to  crowd  to  the  feed  trough  and  get  their  share,  should  be 
placed  where  they  can  eat  in  quiet.  The  expert  stockman  quickly 
notes  any  tendency  to  scour,  and  checks  it  by  reducing  the  allowance 
of  concentrates.  He  has  a  quick  eye  which  takes  in  every  animal 
in  the  feed  lot  at  a  glance,  and  a  sound  judgment  which  guides  in 
dealing  out  feed  ample  for  all,  but  not  a  pound  in  excess. 

Pigs  following-  steers/ — Pigs  are  usually  kept  with  fattening  cat- 
tle to  utilize  the  undigested  corn  or  other  grain  in  the  droppings. 
The  number  of  pigs  per  steer  varies  with  the  kind  of  feed  and  the  age 
of  the  cattle  being  fed.  The  range  is  2  to  3  pigs  per  steer  on  snapped 
corn,  about  1.5  per  steer  on  husked  ear  corn,  1  per  steer  on  shelled 
corn,  and  1  pig  to  2  or  3  steers  on  crushed  or  ground  com.  The 
younger  the  steers,  the  better  they  masticate  and  utilize  their  feed 
and  the  smaller  are  the  gains  made  by  the  pigs  following.  The  best 
pigs  for  following  cattle  weigh  from  50  to  150  lbs.  and  when  they 
become  fat  they  should  be  replaced.  Any  extra  grain  given  the  pigs 
should  be  fed  in  nearby  separate  pens  before  the  cattle  are  fed,  so 
that  they  will  not  crowcl  around  the  feed  troughs  or  under  the  wagon 
and  team  when  the  cattle  are  being  fed.  The  margin  in  cattle  feed- 
ing is  frequently  so  narrow  that  the  gains  made  by  the  pigs  return 
the  only  profit.     Therefore,  except  in  the  case  of  young  cattle  being 

7  Largely  adapted  from  Waters,  Mo.   Bui.   76. 


300  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

fed  for  bab}^  beef  on  ground  grain,  it  is  best  not  to  undertake  to  fatten 
cattle  unless  pigs  can  follow  them  and  utilize  the  waste  feed. 

Cost  of  fattening. — JMumford  *  estimates  that  one  man  and  team 
can  care  for  and  feed  200  cattle  and  the  pigs  following.  From  this 
the  cost  of  labor  can  readily  be  computed  at  local  prices.  Under 
favorable  conditions  the  gains  of  pigs  following  steers  fed  whole 
corn  will  offset  the  labor  cost  of  caring  for  both  the  fattening  steers 
and  the  pigs.  Another  reasonable  assumption  is  that  when  farm- 
grown  crops  are  charged  to  the  steers  at  market  prices,  the  labor  of 
feeding  them  to  the  cattle  is  no  greater  than  that  of  hauling  them  to 
market.  The  manure  produced  by  steers  during  6  months'  feeding 
ranges  from  3  to  4  tons,  worth  on  many  farms  from  $9.00  to-  $18.00 
per  steer.  This  alone  should  repay  the  labor  cost  of  fattening  the 
cattle. 

Preparing  for  shipment;  shrinkage. — A  day  or  two  before  ship- 
ment the  cattle  should  be  fed  hay  only,  preferably  hay  from  the 
grasses  or  mixed  hay,  rather  than  clear  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  which 
are  too  laxative.  For  feed  while  on  the  road  good,  sweet  hay,  with  no 
grain,  is  best.  The  shrinkage  of  either  range  cattle  or  fat  cattle  in 
transit  36  hours  or  less  is  3  to  4  per  ct. ;  when  in  transit  70  hours  or 
over  the  shrinkage  is  5  to  6  per  ct.  of  their  live  weight.'-*  When 
cattle  are  fed  succulent  feed  up  to  the  time  of  shipping,  the  shrinkage 
is  much  greater. 

II.     Raising  Beef  Cattle 

In  establishing  a  breeding  herd,  the  first  step  should  be  to  select 
well-bred  individuals  of  the  beef  breeds,  having  the  conformation 
which  indicates  that  their  off-spring  will  make  economical  gains, 
mature  early,  and  yield  carcasses  with  a  large  percentage  of  high- 
priced  cuts  of  meat.  AVhere  cows  are  kept  only  for  raising  calves  for 
beef,  the  cost  of  their  keep  for  an  entire  year  must  be  charged  against 
the  fatted  steer.  In  reducing  the  cost  of  beef  production,  it  is  there- 
fore essential  that  the  breeding  herd  be  maintained  as  cheaply  as  pos- 
sible, yet  kept  in  vigorous  breeding  condition. 

The  breeding  cows. — Cows  kept  solely  for  beef  production  are 
commonly  grazed  on  pasture  during  the  growing  season,  the  suckling 
calves  running  with  their  dams.  Usually  the  pastures  thus  utilized 
will  be  land  least  suited  to  tillage,  and  no  concentrates  will  be  fed  on 
pasture.  Where  land  is  high-priced  and  tillable  the  herd  may  often 
be  maintained  most  cheaply  on  limited  pasturage  supplemented  by 
summer  silage.  Pure  water,  salt,  and  shade  should  be  supplied  the 
herd  at  pasture. 

8  Beef  Production,   pp.  33-4.  9  Ward,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.   Bui.  25. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  BEEF  CATTLE        301 

The  herd  may  be  wintered  on  legume  roughage  alone,  or  on  car- 
bonaceous roughages  with  some  such  nitrogenous  concentrate  as  cot- 
tonseed or  linseed  meal  to  balance  the  ration.  They  should  be  kept 
in  good  flesh  else  they  will  not  produce  vigorous  calves  and  nourish 
them  with  a  good  flow  of  milk. 

At  the  Illinois  Station/°  an  average  ration  of  16.7  lbs.  com  silage, 
3.5  lbs.  clover  hay,  and  9.6  lbs.  oat  straw  proved  excellent  for  winter- 
ing 860-lb.  beef  cows,  while  one  of  8.7  lbs.  shock  corn,  3.5  lbs.  clover 
hay,  and  10.8  lbs.  oat  straw  was  satisfactory,  but  not  as  good  as  the 
first  ration.  At  the  Pennsylvania  Station, ^^  1,160-lb.  beef  cows,  sev- 
eral of  which  were  suckling  calves,  were  wintered  satisfactorily  on  58 
lbs.  of  corn  silage  and  1  lb.  of  cottonseed  meal  per  head  daily.  Dur- 
ing the  remainder  of  the  year  the  cows,  with  the  calves  at  foot,  grazed 
a  pasture  too  rough  for  tilled  crops. 

At  the  Hays,  Kansas,  Sub-station,^-  900-lb.  beef  cows  were  wintered 
on  20  to  35  lbs.  of  kafir  silage  or  26  to  27  lbs.  of  kafir  fodder  or  stover 
per  head  daily,  with  1  lb.  of  cottonseed  meal  and  what  wheat  straw 
they  would  eat,  amounting  to  10  to  17  lbs.  daily  for  each  animal. 
The  feed  cost  for  100  days  ranged  from  $4.4-1:  per  head  with  kafir 
silage  to  $9.91  with  kafir  fodder.  These -.trials  show  the  possibilities 
of  maintaining  beef  breeding  cows  chiefly  on  cheap  roughages. 

The  beef  bull. — On  the  range  the  bulls  run  with  the  cows,  but 
under  farm  conditions  it  is  best  to  confine  the  bull  during  the  sum- 
mer, preferably  in  a  well-fenced  pasture  lot.  It  will  then  be  possible 
to  keep  a  record  of  the  date  when  the  cows  are  due  to  calve,  and  the 
bull  so  handled  can  serve  a  larger  number  of  cows  a  year.  The  same 
general  principles  apply  to  the  feed  and  care  of  the  beef  bull  as 
with  the  dairy  bull.     (See  Chapter  XXII.) 

The  beef  calf. — Under  the  simplest  method  of  beef  production,  as 
on  the  range,  the  calves  are  dropped  in  the  spring  and  run  with  their 
dams  during  the  summer.  Under  farm  conditions  some  prefer  to 
allow  the  calves  to  suck  only  at  stated  intervals,  3  times  a  day  at 
first,  and  later  twice.  Where  the  calf  remains  with  the  dam  her 
udder  should,  for  a  time,  be  stripped  night  and  morning  lest  neglect 
bring  garget  and  destroy  her  usefulness.  The  greatest  danger  under 
this  system  comes  at  weaning  time,  when,  if  the  calf  has  not  been 
taught  to  eat  solid  food,  it  pines  and  loses  weight.  To  avoid  this, 
before  weaning  it  should  be  taught  to  eat  shelled  corn,  whole  oats, 
wheat  bran,  linseed  meal,  hay,  etc.     The  first  departure  from  this 

10  Miimford,  111.  Bui.   111. 

11  Cocliel,  Tomhave,  and  Severson,  Penn.  Bui.  118,  and  information  to  the 
authors. 

i2CocheI,  Kan.  Bui.   198. 


302 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


simple  and  primitive  method  is  putting  two  calves  with  each  cow, 
which  is  feasible  where  she  yields  a  good  flow  of  milk.  Suckling 
calves  should  gain  2  lbs.,  or  over,  per  head  daily  if  their  dams  are 
good  milkers. 

"While  in  some  districts  it  is  best  to  rear  the  beef  calf  on  whole 
milk  from  dam  or  pail,  over  large  sections  of  the  country  it  is  more 
profitable  to  sell  the  fat  of  the  milk  in  butter  or  cream  and  rear  the 
calf  on  skim  milk  with  proper  supplements.  This  method  involves 
increased  labor,  skill,  and  watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the  feeder, 


K&Ji 

'^d^i^miB^^i^'i . ' 

^^       -  ■  -^-^m     ■  -^-^i^ 

Fia.  85. — A  Farm  Herd  op  Beef  Cows  and  Calves 

The  next  few  years  should  see  good  beef  breeding  herds  established  on  thou- 
sands of  farms,  to  utilize  land  unsuited  for  tillage  or  such  cheap  feeds  as  corn 
silage,  corn  stover,  and  straw.      (From  Breeder's  Gazette.) 

but  its  success  has  been  widely  demonstrated.  The  method  to  be  em- 
ployed is  like  that  already  given  for  the  rearing  of  the  dairy  calf, 
except  that  the  beef  calf  should  be  fed  more  liberally.  Calves  that 
fail  to  thrive  when  sucking  the  cow  or  when  fed  on  rich  milk  should 
have  their  allowance  reduced  or  should  be  given  part  skim  milk. 

After  weaning,  growth  should  be  continuous.  If  the  calves  are  not 
at  pasture,  they  should  be  fed  plenty  of  good  roughage,  with  sufficient 
concentrates  to  produce  the  desired  gains.  As  with  dairy  heifers, 
for  young  beef  cattle  nothing  excels  good  legume  hay,  rich  in  pro- 
tein and  bone-building  mineral  matter.    Where  this  is  not  available 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  BEEF  CATTLE        303 

nitrogenous  concentrates  should  balance  the  ration.  The  majority 
of  beef  producers  prefer  to  have  calves  dropped  in  the  spring,  as  the 
cows  may  then  be  wintered  more  cheaply,  with  less  shelter  and  less 
care. 

Veal  production. — For  the  highest  grade  of  veal  whole  milk  is 
essential,  and  growth  must  be  as  rapid  as  possible,  the  whole  process 
being  completed  before  there  is  any  tendency  in  the  flesh  to  take 
on  the  coarser  character  of  beef.  Such  veal  commands  a  high  price 
in  some  of  the  European  markets,  and  the  butchers  are  extremely 
expert  in  judging  whether  the  calf  has  received  any  other  feed  than 
whole  milk.  In  this  country  such  veal  can  be  profitably  produced 
only  for  special  markets.  A  less  expensive  method  is  to  feed  a  limited 
amount  of  whole  milk  supplemented  by  grain,  or  skim  milk  may  be 
gradually  substituted,  as  with  dairy  calves.  With  the  latter  method, 
considerable  skill  is  necessary  to  feed  the  calves  so  they  will  gain 
rapidly  without  going  off  feed. 

Growing-  beef  cattle. — Except  where  calves  are  being  fattened  for 
baby  beef,  growing  beef  cattle  are  not  ordinarily  given  any  feed  in 
addition  to  good  pasture,  unless  the  pasture  becomes  short.  Then 
summer  silage,  soiling  crops,  or  specially  grown  annual  pasture  crops 
may  be  supplied.  Considerable  fall  pasturage  is  furnished  by  after- 
math on  meadows  or  by  the  stubble  fields,  especially  where  rape  seed 
is  sown  with  the  spring  grain. 

The  ration  needed  to  carry  growing  cattle  thru  the  winter  in  good 
condition  will  depend  on  their  age,  and  on  whether  it  is  desired  to 
have  them  make  substantial  gains  or  merely  come  thru  the  winter 
in  thrifty  enough  condition  to  make  maximum  gains  on  pasture  the 
following  summer.  While  yearlings  and  2-year-olds  may  be  win- 
tered on  good  roughages  only,  for  calves  1  to  3  lbs.  of  concentrates 
per  head  daily  is  needed  in  addition,  for  it  is  important  to  keep  the 
calf  growing  steadily.  Calves  do  not  thrive  on  such  coarse  rough- 
age as  may  be  fed  to  older  cattle.  At  the  North  Platte,  Nebraska, 
Substation,^^  beef  calves  were  wintered  satisfactorily  on  2  lbs.  of 
corn  and  oats  with  alfalfa  hay  or  half  alfalfa  and  half  prairie  or  sor- 
ghum hay.  Poorer  results  were  secured  with  prairie  or  sorghum  hay 
and  the  same  amount  of  grain.  At  the  Kansas  Station,^*  beef  calves 
made  good  growth  in  winter  on  silage  from  corn,  kafir,  or  sweet  sor- 
ghum, and  1  lb.  of  cottonseed  or  linseed  meal  per  head  daily.  The 
second  winter,  if  the  cattle  are  not  to  be  fattened  on  grass  the  fol- 
lowing summer,  the  aim  should  be  to  grow  as  large  a  framework  as 
possible,  but  not  to  fatten,  for  cattle  that  are  lean  but  thrifty  in  the 
spring  make  larger  gains  on  summer  pasture  than  do  fleshy  ones. 

"Snyder,  Nebr.  Buls.  105,  117.  h  Cochel,  information  to  the  authors. 


304  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

If  the  cattle  are  to  be  fattened  on  pasture  the  following  summer, 
feeding  a  moderate  amount  of  concentrates  in  addition  to  legume 
hay  and  silage  rich  in  ear  corn  will  start  fattening  and  help  to 
shorten  the  summer  feeding   period. 

Trials  at  the  IMissouri  Station,^^  show  that  yearling  steers  fed  clover, 
alfalfa,  or  cowpea  hay  with  5.5  to  6.0  lbs.  of  corn  per  head  daily  gained 
1.4  to  2.0  lbs.  per  head  daily.  Half  clover  hay  and  half  corn  stover 
gave  nearly  as  good  results,  but  with  corn  stover,  or  timothy,  sor- 
ghum, or  millet  hay  as  the  only  roughage,  the  results  were  much 
poorer.  Yearlings  wintered  on  13.6  lbs.  clover  hay  and  13.6  lbs. 
corn  stover  per  head  daily  or  on  ensiled  corn  stover  alone  gained 
about  half  a  pound  per  head  daily.  On  cured  corn  stover  alone  they 
lost  weight.  At  the  Tennessee  Station  ^*^  steers  were  wintered  satisfac- 
torily on  corn  silage,  corn  stover,  or  straw,  with  1  to  2  lbs.  of  cotton- 
seed meal  in  addition. 

III.     Methods  of  Beep  Production 

Fattening  cattle  on  pasture. — ^^\^hether  the  feeder  should  finish 
his  cattle  during  the  wdnter  and  spring  in  the  dry  lot  or  carry  them 
thru  the  winter  to  be  fattened  on  pasture  in  the  summer  will  depend, 
first  of  all,  on  the  cost  of  pasturage  compared  with  hay,  silage,  and 
other  roughage.  In  the  grazing  regions  cattle  are  conunonly  sold  at 
the  close  of  the  pasture  season  when,  if  the  grass  has  been  good,  many 
are  fat  enough  for  the  block,  while  the  rest  go  into  feed  lots  to  be  fat- 
tened further.  Where  land  is  high-priced,  the  tendency  is  to  fatten 
feeders  in  the  dry  lot,  since  under  these  conditions  corn  silage  is 
often  cheaper  than  pasturage. 

According  to  data  collected  by  the  experiments  stations  ^^  from 
successful  cattlemen,  the  gains  of  cattle  in  the  corn  belt  on  grass  and 
receiving  no  grain  should  range  from  1.2  to  1.7  lbs.  per  head  daily 
for  yearlings  and  1.3  to  1.9  lbs.  for  2-3^ear-olds  during  the  grazing 
season.  It  was  found  in  Indiana  that  on  the  average  thruout  the  sea- 
son each  grain-fed  steer  required  1.1  acres  of  pasture,  and  when  no 
grain  was  given  each  steer  required  2  acres.  From  these  figures  and 
the  price  at  which  pasture  land  rents,  the  cost  of  gains  on  pasture 
may  be  calculated.  When  cattle  are  fattened  on  pasture  less  grain 
and  less  expensive  supplements  like  cottonseed  and  linseed  meal  are 
required  than  when  finished  in  the  winter  feed  lot.  Cattle  fatten 
more  rapidly  and  more  uniformly  on  pasture,  and  the  pigs  following 
them  make  larger  gains.     Labor  is  saved  when  cattle  are  fattened  on 

15  Waters,  Mo.  Bill.   75. 

16  Willson,   information  to  the  authors. 

iTMumford  and  Hall,  111.  Cir.  79;  Waters,  Mo.  Cir.  24. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OP  BEEF  CATTLE        305 

pasture.  In  summer  the  grain  only  is  drawn;  it  is  usually  fed  but 
once  a  day;  there  is  no  roughage  to  handle;  and  the  manure  is  dis- 
tributed by  the  cattle  themselves.^^ 

Feeding  concentrates  on  pasture. — Cattle  being  finished  on  pas- 
ture may  be  fed  no  concentrates  at  all,  a  small  allowance  may  be 
given  during  the  entire  pasture  period,  concentrates  may  be  fed 
during  only  the  last  few  weeks,  or,  finally,  an  unlimited  allowance  of 
grain  may  be  given  thruout  the  entire  period.  Except  under  range 
conditions  and  in  certain  districts,  as  in  the  bluegrass  region  of  Vir- 
ginia, where  the  grasses  are  unusually  nutritious,  it  will  usually  pay 
to  feed  some  grain  in  addition  to  pasture.  The  cheap  gains  made  on 
grass  alone  are  usually  offset  by  the  low  selling  value  of  such  cattle, 
because  they  are  usually  not  well  finished.  When  grain  has  been  fed 
to  cattle  during  the  winter,  it  should  be  continued  after  turning  to 
pasture  until  they  become  accustomed  to  grass,  otherwise  they  may 
shrink  in  weight.  If  cattle  are  nearly  finished  when  the  pasture  sea- 
son opens,  they  had  best  be  finished  in  the  dry  lot,  for  if  turned  to 
pasture  they  usually  make  poor  gains. 

Since  immature  grass,  such  as  is  usually  eaten  by  grazing  animals, 
is  much  richer  in  protein  than  grass  at  the  stage  when  cut  for  hay, 
corn  and  bluegrass  pasture  alone  make  a  fairly  well-balanced  ration 
for  the  fattening  steer.  Experiments  at  the  Missouri  Station  ^^  show, 
however,  that  it  is  usually  advisable  to  add  some  protein-rich  sup- 
plement during  the  last  of  the  feeding  period  to  keep  the  steers  from 
going  off  feed  and  making  smaller  gains. 

Baby  beef. — The  most  intensive  method  of  beef  production  is  fat- 
tening calves  for  baby  beef.  Under  this  system  beef -bred  calves  are 
fattened  as  they  grow,  reaching  a  good  finish  when  16  to  18  months 
old  and  weighing  about  1,100  lbs.  or  less.  In  the  production  of 
baby  beef,  first  of  all,  blocky  calves  of  good  beef  type  and  conforma- 
tion must  be  selected,  for  scrub  or  dairy-bred  calves  will  not  usually 
reach  the  desired  maturity  and  finish  at  this  early  age.  Profitable 
baby  beef  production  requires  a  high  degree  of  experience,  judgment, 
and  skill  and  it  is  a  mistake  for  the  inexperienced  to  dip  heavily  into 
this  art.  Calves  for  baby  beef  should  be  fattened  as  they  grow,  never 
being  allowed  to  lose  their  "calf  fat."  In  winter  roughage  of  high 
quality,  such  as  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  and  silage,  should  be  supplied 
and  during  summer  the  calves  should  be  on  good  pasture.  Shelled, 
crushed,  or  ground  corn  should  be  fed,  together  with  linseed  meal, 
cottonseed  meal,  or  other  protein-rich  concentrates.  When  whole 
corn  is  given,  hogs  may  profitably  follow.  Oats  are  one  of  the  best 
of  feeds  with  which  to  start  the  calf  on  its  way  to  fattening.     In 

18  Waters,  Mo.  Cir.  24.  is  Mumford,  Mo.  Bui.  90. 


306  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

baby  beef  production  the  calves  must  be  fattening  all  the  time; 
this  can  only  be  accomplished  by  the  most  liberal  and  judicious  feed- 
ing, since  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  get  calves  and  yearlings  suffi- 
ciently fat  for  the  market  requirements.  Heifer  calves  mature  more 
quickly  and  may  be  marketed  earlier  than  steers.  It  is  seldom  pos- 
sible or  profitable  to  get  spring  calves  ready  for  the  baby  beef  market 
before  July  of  the  following  year  and  more  frequently  they  are  not 
marketed  until  October,  November,  or  December,  when  approximately 
18  months  o-ld.  This  system  of  beef  production  is  best  suited  to  corn- 
belt  farms  where  pasture  is  relatively  expensive  and  corn  is  cheaper 
than  in  other  sections  of  the  country. 

Fattening  yearlings. — Less  extreme  than  the  feeding  of  calves  for 
baby  beef  is  finishing  steers  as  yearlings ;  i.e.,  before  they  are  2  years 
old.  Spring  calves  may  be  carried  thru  the  first  winter  on  roughage 
with  a  small  allowance  of  concentrates,  the  ration  being  such  as  to 
keep  them  growing  steadily.  The  second  summer  good  pasture  alone 
will  suffice  to  put  them  in  condition  for  the  feed  lot  in  the  fall. 

Calves  to  be  fattened  as  yearlings  should  be  taught  to  eat  grain 
before  being  weaned,  so  that  there  may  be  no  loss  of  condition  at  this 
time.  To  fatten  yearlings  properly  requires  8  to  10  months,  even 
if  they  are  of  good  beef  type.  Trials  at  the  Indiana  Station  -"  show 
that  it  is  ordinarily  more  profitable  to  complete  the  fattening  of  year- 
lings in  the  feed  lot,  than  to  turn  them  out  to  grass  in  the  spring, 
when  half  finished. 

Fattening  cattle  2  years  old  or  older. — Where  pasturage  is  cheap, 
cattle  are  usually  not  marketed  until  2  years  old  or  older,  in  which 
case  they  may  be  carried  thru  the  first  winter  chiefly  on  roughage 
with  1  to  3  lbs.  of  grain  per  head  daily.  The  following  summer 
they  will  grow  well  on  good  pasture  without  grain.  The  second 
winter  no  grain  need  be  fed,  if  the  cattle  are  not  to  be  sold  until  fall 
or  until  after  finishing  in  the  winter  feed  lot.  If  they  are  to  be  fin- 
ished on  grass  early  in  the  summer,  a  moderate  allowance  of  concen- 
trates will  be  needed  during  the  preceding  winter  to  start  fattening. 

According  to  Cochel  of  the  Kansas  Station,^^  the  system  of  beef 
production  usually  most  profitable  in  western  Kansas  is  to  raise  the 
calves  on  pasture  the  first  summer ;  winter  them  on  kafir,  milo,  or 
sorghum  silage,  alfalfa  hay  and  straw  or  stover  from  the  sorghums, 
with  perhaps  some  cottonseed  meal  in  addition ;  pasture  the  yearlings 
the  second  summer  without  feeding  grain;  carry  them  thru  the  sec- 
ond winter  as  before ;  and  market  the  third  summer  from  grass.  With 
good  pasture  such  cattle  should  reach  a  weight  of  about  1,050  lbs.  and 
be  fat  enough  to  sell  as  fleshy  feeders  or  fair  killers.     In  other  sec- 

20  Skinner  and  Cochel,  Ind.  Bui.  142.  2X  Information  to  the  authors. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  BEEF  CATTLE        307 

tions  of  the  western  grazing  district  a  still  less  intensive  system  is 
followed,  the  steers  not  being  sold  until  3  years  of  age.  However, 
the  tendency  is  ever  toward  hurrying  the  beef  animal  to  the  block, 
and  while  4-  and  5-year-old  steers  were  once  common  on  the  range, 
but  few  now  reach  that  age. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Into  what  two  phases  is  beef  production  largely  divided? 

2.  Define  margin  and  show  by  example  the  margin  necessary  to  prevent  loss 
in  fattening  steers.     What  factors  influence  the  margin  required? 

3.  Discuss  the  food  requirements  of  fattening  cattle. 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  fattening  2-year-olds  com- 
pared with  calves  or  yearlings? 

5.  How  does  the  degree  of  finish  affect  the  cost  of  gains? 

6.  What  factors  affect  the  length  of  time  required  to  fatten  cattle? 

7.  Discuss  the  effects  of  limiting  the  allowance  of  concentrates  during  the 
fattening  period. 

8.  Wherein  do  beef-bred  steers  excel  scrubs  and  dairy-bred  steers  for  beef 
production? 

9.  Briefly  discuss  each  of  the  following:  (a)  shelter  for  fattening  cattle;  (b) 
the  self  feeder;  (c)  water  and  salt  requirements;  (d)  pigs  following  steers; 
(e)   cost  of  fattening. 

10.  How  should  beef  breeding  cpws  be  fed  and  cared  for? 

11.  Describe  various  methods  of  raising  beef  calves. 

12.  How  should  calves  be  fed  for  veal? 

13.  Discuss  the  feeding  of  growing  beef  cattle. 

14.  What  have  you  learned  concerning  fattening  cattle  on  pasture? 

15.  Discuss  the  production  of  baby  beef;  the  fattening  of  yearlings;  the  fatten- 
ing of  cattle  two  years  old  or  over. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

FEEDS  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE 

I.     Carbonaceous  Concentrates 

Indian  corn. — Of  all  the  concentrates,  Indian  corn  is  and  will 
continue  to  be  the  great  fattening  feed  for  cattle  in  the  United  States. 
It  excels  not  only  because  of  its  richness  in  starch  and  oil,  but  also 
because  no  other  concentrate  is  so  palatable  to  cattle.  Numerous 
trials  have  clearly  shown,  however,  that  corn  is  too  low  in  protein, 
even  for  fattening  animals,  and  should  therefore  be  fed  with  legume 
hay  or  else  with  some  protein-rich  concentrate,  such  as  linseed  or 
cottonseed  meal,  when  only  carbonaceous  roughages  are  used.  The 
value  of  legume  hay  for  supplementing  corn  is  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table,  which  summarizes  the  results  of  8  trials,  averaging  144 
days  in  length,  where  corn  was  fed  with  carbonaceous  roughage, 
such  as  timothy  hay,  prairie  hay,  corn  stover  or  kafir  stover,  to  one 
lot  of  2-  or  3-year-old  steers,  while  corn  and  clover  or  alfalfa  hay 
were  fed  to  a  second  lot. 

Legume  hay  as  a  supplement  to  corn 


Average  ration 
Lot  I,  unbalanced  ration 

Initial 
weight 
Lbs. 

Daily 
gain 
Lbs. 

Feed  for 
Concen- 
trates 
Lbs. 

100  lbs.  gain 
Rough- 
age 
Lbs. 

Corn,  15.2  lbs. 

Carbonaceous  roughage,  13.0  lbs... 

..   9.59 

1.7 

930 

832 

Lot  II,  balanced  ration 

Corn,  15.4  lbs. 

Legume  hay,   1.3.2  lbs 

..    952   • 

2.3 

689 

575 

While  the  steers  in  Lot  II,  fed  corn  and  legume  haj^  gained  2.3 
lbs.  per  head  daily,  those  in  Lot  I,  getting  the  unbalanced  ration  of 
corn  and  carbonaceous  roughage,  gained  only  1.7  lbs.,  and  re(|uired 
35  per  ct.  more  corn  and  44  per  ct.  more  roughage  for  100  lbs.  gain 
than  the  others. 

The  following  table  shows  clearly  the  importance  of  adding  some 
protein-rich  concentrate  to  balance  the  ration  when  corn  is  fed  with 
carbonaceous  roughage.    This  summarizes  the  results  of  4  trials,  aver- 

308 


FEEDS  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE  309 

aging  132  days,  in  which  one  lot  of  steers  was  fed  only  com  and 
carbonaceous  roughage,  while  linseed  meal,  cottonseed  meal,  or  gluten 
feed  was  added  to  the  ration  of  the  other  lot.  /^ 

Protein-rich  concentrates  as  supplements  to  corn 


Lot  I,  unbalanced  ration 

Initial 

weight 

Lbs. 

Daily 

gain 
Lbs. 

Feed  for  100  lbs.  gain 

Concen-               Rougb- 

trates                      age 

Lbs.                      Lbs. 

Corn,  16.3  lbs. 

Carbonaceous  roughage,  8.3  lbs.. . 

.  .      995 

1.6 

1,082 

522 

Lot  II,  balanced  ration 

Corn,  16.7  lbs. 

Protein-rich  concentrate,  2.1  lbs. 
Carbonaceous  roughage,  8.6   lbs.. 

.  .  1,002 

2.2 

862 

402 

Lot  I,  fed  only  corn  and  carbonaceous  roughage,  gained  but  1.6 
lbs.  per  head  daily,  while  Lot  II,  receiving  2.1  lbs.  of  protein-rich 
concentrates  in  addition,  gained  2.2  lbs.  per  head  daily  and  required 
about  20  per  ct.  less  feed  per  100  lbs.  gain.  When  the  corn  allow- 
ance is  properly  balanced,  not  only  is  the  feeding  value  of  this  grain 
greatly  increased  with  both  the  cattle  and  the  pigs  Avhich  follow  the 
steers,  but  it  keeps  the  animals  more  healthy,  shortens  the  feeding 
period,  and  gives  a  higher  finish  than  can  be  secured  with  unbalanced 
rations. 

Adding  a  protein-rich  concentrate  to  corn  and  legume  hay. — 
Whether  it  will  pay  to  add  a  nitrogenous  concentrate  to  a  ration  of 
corn  and  legume  hay  will  depend  on  the  relative  prices  of  corn  and 
the  other  feeds.  During  the  early  part  of  the  fattening  period 
steers  given  all  the  legume  hay  they  will  clean  up  eat  enough  of  it  to 
balance  their  ration  quite  well.  Later,  when  they  eat  niore  corn  and 
less  hay,  the  ration  becomes  too  low  in  protein,  and  adding  a  protein- 
rich  concentrate  will  then  cause  larger  gains.  With  feeds  at  usual 
prices,  it  ordinarily  pays  to  give  at  least  2  lbs.  of  linseed  or  cotton- 
seed meal  per  head  daily,  or  an  equivalent  amount  of  other  protein- 
rich  feeds,  when  steers  are  fed  corn  and  clover  hay.  With  alfalfa 
hay  for  roughage,  there  is  less  advantage  in  adding  protein-rich  con- 
centrates, since  alfalfa  is  higher  in  protein  than  clover. 

Preparation  of  corn  for  beef  cattle. — The  practice  of  successful 
stockmen  in  the  corn  belt  and  trials  at  the  experiment  stations  show 
that,  in  general,  getting  corn  to  cattle  in  the  simplest  manner  and 
with  the  least  preparation  and  handling  is  the  most  economical,  when 
pigs  follow  the  steers  to  consume  any  grains  which  escape  mastica- 
tion.    The  majority  of  feeders  accordingly  feed  shock  corn,  husked 


310 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


or  unhusked  ear  corn,  or  shelled  corn,  but  few  using  corn  meal  or 
eom-and-cob  meal  thruout  the  fattening  period.  To  induce  young 
animals  to  eat  sufficient  com  to  overcome  their  tendenc}^  to  grow 
ratlier  than  to  fatten,  more  preparation  is  warranted  than  for  older 
animals.  Many  skilled  feeders  seek  to  ' '  keep  the  feed  better  than  the 
cattle,"  i.e.,  prepare  the  feed  more  as  the  cattle  gain  in  flesh.  Thus, 
they  may  start  the  steers  on  shock  corn,  then  as  they  require  more 
concentrates,  add  snapped  corn  or  ear  corn;  still  later  the  ear  corn 
is  broken  or  shelled ;  and  toward  the  close  of  the  fattening  period,  to 
tempt  them  to  consume  a  heavier  allowance  of  grain,  corn  meal  or 


Fig.  86. — Fattening  Steers  Eating  Shock  Corn 

Feeding  shock  corn  is  an  economical  practice,  especially  during  the  first  of  the 
fattening  period.  Later,  more  preparation  of  the  corn  may  be  profitable.  (From 
Successful  Fanning.) 


corn-and-cob  meal  is  employed.  Silage  from  well-matured  corn  is 
the  most  palatable  form  in  which  the  entire  corn  plant  can  be  offered 
to  the  steer.  In  addition  to  the  grain  in  this  succulent  feed,  some 
com  should  be  fed,  usually  in  the  form  of  shelled  corn  or  ear  com. 

Since  com  long  stored  in  the  crib  becomes  dry  and  hard,  for  sum- 
mer feeding  the  grain  should  be  soaked  or  shelled,  or  possibly  ground. 

Other  cereals. — In  sections  of  the  West  where  com  does  not  thrive 
harley  is  of  much  importance  for  fattening  cattle.  This  grain  is 
equal  to  or  but  slightly  lower  than  corn  in  value. 

Wheat  is  seldom  fed  to  cattle  except  when  off  grade  or  unusually 
low  in  price.     As  wheat  is  less  palatable  than  corn,  steers  may  not 


FEEDS  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE  311 

eat  so  much,  and  hence  they  may  make  slightly  smaller  gains.  Other- 
wise, the  feeding  value  of  wheat  is  as  high  as  that  of  corn. 

Since  oats  are  usually  high  in  price  compared  with  other  grains, 
they  are  seldom  used  as  the  chief  concentrate  for  fattening,  tho  they 
are  well  liked  by  cattle  and  produce  beef  of  good  quality.  Oats  are 
excellent  for  growing  cattle,  and  are  also  useful  for  mixing  with 
corn  in  starting  cattle  on  feed,  especially  calves  being  fattened  for 
baby  beef. 

For  the  northern  part  of  the  Great  Plains  region  emmer  ranks 
high  as  a  grain  for  fattening  cattle.  Tho  in  one  trial  ^  it  proved  fully 
equal  to  corn,  its  usual  value  will  probably  be  slightly  lower  than  that 
of  corn. 

The  grain  sorghums  are  of  great  and  increasing  importance  for 
beef  production  thruout  the  southern  portion  of  the  Great  Plains 
region.  When  fed  with  alfalfa  hay  to  balance  the  ration,  kafir  or 
milo  grain  nearly  equals  corn  in  feeding  value. 

The  seed  of  hog-  or  hroom-corn  millet,  which  is  a  reliable  grain 
crop  on  the  northern  plains,  is  a  satisfactory  feed  for  fattening  cattle, 
being  worth  about  three-fourths  as  much  as  corn  per  100  lbs. 

In  the  South  low  grade  rough  rice  is  sometimes  an  economical  feed 
for  beef  production,  being  worth  slightly  more  than  corn. 

Since  all  of  these  grains  are  low  in  protein,  they  should  be  fed 
with  legume  hay  or  protein-rich  concentrates.  All  should  be  ground 
or  crushed  for  fattening  cattle,  even  when  pigs  follow,  for  the  grains 
that  escape  mastication  are  too  small  to  be  readily  recovered  by  the 
pigs. 

Miscellaneous  carbonaceous  concentrates. — In  the  vicinity  of 
western  beet-sugar  factories  thousands  of  cattle  are  fattened  annually 
on  ivet  heet  pulp  with  alfalfa  hay,  which  admirably  supplements  this 
protein-poor  feed,  and  usually  with  a  small  allowance  of  grain  in 
addition.  In  a  trial  at  the  Colorado  Station  -  1  ton  of  wet  beet  pulp 
was  equal  to  620  lbs.  of  alfalfa  hay  or  220  lbs.  of  ground  corn. 
Animals  should  be  accustomed  gradually  to  the  pulp,  later  getting 
all  they  will  clean  up.  Care  should  be  taken  that  refuse  pulp  does 
not  accumulate  in  the  troughs  and  decompose. 

In  the  sugar  districts  of  the  South  cane  molasses  is  an  economical 
carbonaceous  concentrate  for  cattle.  When  replacing  not  more  than 
half  the  corn  in  a  ration,  it  proved  slightly  more  valuable,  pound  for 
pound,  than  this  grain,  in  a  trial  at  the  Texas  Station.^  Owing  to  the 
high  price  of  molasses  in  the  North,  as  much  as  5  lbs.  per  head  daily 
is  not  ordinarily  economical,  tho  a  small  amount  mixed  with  other 

1  Wilson,  S.  D.  Bui.   160.  3  Burns,  Tex.  Bui.   110. 

2  Carlj'le  and  Griffith,  Colo.  Bui.   102. 


312  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

feed  may  be  profitable  in  stimulating  the  appetite  or  in  getting  ani- 
mals to  eat  roughage  which  they  would  otherwise  refuse. 

The  use  of  heet  molasses  is  greatly  increasing  in  the  beet-sugar 
districts.  It  is  spread  over  hay  or  cut  straw,  either  undiluted  or 
thinned  with  water.  Owing  to  its  laxative  effect,  not  more  than  4 
to  8  lbs.  of  beet  molasses  should  be  fed  per  head  daily  to  fattening 
cattle. 

II.    Protein-rich  Concentrates 

Cottonseed  meal. — This  protein-rich  concentrate  is  the  basis  of  the 
fattening  of  beef  cattle  in  the  South  and  is  widely  used  in  the  north- 
ern states  to  supplement  rations  deficient  in  protein.  Trials  at  the 
Indiana  Station,*  show  that  about  2.5  lbs.  of  cottonseed  meal  daily 
per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight  is  sufficient  to  balance  a  ration  of  shelled 
corn,  corn  silage,  and  oat  straw  or  clover  hay.  However,  in  the  South, 
owing  to  its  cheapness  cottonseed  meal  is  commonly  fed  as  the  sole 
concentrate,  along  with  cottonseed  hulls,  corn  silage,  or  other  rough- 
age. Since  cottonseed  meal  is  poisonous  to  fattening  cattle  when  fed 
in  excess,  they  should  be  accustomed  to  it  gradually  and  the  meal 
should  be  mixed  with  roughage  so  a  greedy  steer  cannot  over  eat. 
Trials  at  the  Tennessee  Station  ^  show  that  it  rarely  pays  to  feed 
more  than  4  or  5  lbs.  during  the  first  of  the  fattening  period,  in- 
creasing to  6  or  7  lbs.  later.  Results  at  the  North  Carolina  Station  ^ 
show  that  where  the  market  demands  highly  finished  animals  it  may 
be  profitable  to  feed  as  much  as  10.5  lbs.  per  head  daily.  With 
cottonseed  hulls  for  roughage,  this  amount  could  be  fed  only  120  to 
130  days  before  poisonous  effects  began  to  show,  while  with  corn 
silage  for  roughage  the  fattening  could  be  continued  for  30  to  60 
days  longer  without  harm.  Owing  to  its  protein-rich  nature,  cotton- 
seed meal  tends  to  produce  growth  rather  than  to  fatten  young  steers ; 
hence,  2-  or  3-year-olds  are  best  suited  for  heavy  cottonseed  meal 
feeding. 

Cold-pressed  cottonseed  cake  is  relished  by  cattle  even  better  than 
cottonseed  meal.  In  a  trial  at  the  Iowa  Station  ^  133  lbs.  of  this 
cake  proved  more  than  equal  to  100  lbs.  of  cottonseed  meal. 

Linseed  meal. — Thruout  the  northern  states  linseed  meal  is  widely 
used  as  a  protein-rich  supplement  for  fattening  beef  cattle.  In  trials 
at  the  Nebraska  Station  *  linseed  meal  was  slightly  superior  to  cotton- 

4  Skinner  and  King,  Ind,  Buls.  153,  167,  178. 
sWillson,  Tenn.  Bui.  104. 

6  Gray  and  Curtis,  information  to  the  authors. 

7  Kennedy  and  Bobbins,  Breeder's  Gaz.,  58,  1910,  p.  303. 

8  Smith,  Nebr.  Bui.   100. 


FEEDS  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE  313 

seed  meal  as  a  supplement  to  eoru  and  prairie  hay  or  corn  stover,  and 
produced  considerably  larger  gains  than  when  the  ration  was  sup- 
plemented by  wheat  bran. 

Wheat  bran. — Since  wheat  bran  is  lower  in  protein  than  linseed 
or  cottonseed  meal,  a  correspondingly  larger  amount  is  needed  to 
balance  a  ration  deficient  in  this  nutrient.  It  is  therefore  frequently 
an  expensive  supplement  for  fattening  cattle.  However,  this  bulky 
feed  is  helpful  in  starting  cattle  on  feed,  even  tho  it  is  not  continued 
thruout  the  fattening  period. 

Soybeans;  cowpeas. — These  protein-rich  seeds  are  well  suited  to 
supplement  corn  and  the  other  cereals.  In  trials  at  the  Indiana  Sta- 
tion "  ground  soybeans  gave  good  returns  when  2.5  to  3.0  lbs.  was 
fed  per  head  daily  to  supplement  a  ration  of  shelled  corn,  corn  silage, 
and  oat  straw  or  clover  hay.  They  were  somewhat  less  satisfactory 
than  cottonseed  meal,  however,  for  the  steers  fed  soybeans  were  more 
apt  to  go  off  feed  near  the  end  of  the  fattening  period,  due  undoubt- 
edly to  the  large  amount  of  oil  the  beans  contain.  With  soybean  meal, 
which  contains  much  less  oil,  this  condition  would  probably  not  result. 

In  the  southern  states  it  is  possible  to  grow  a  winter  crop  of  small 
grain  and  harvest  it  in  time  to  plant  soybeans,  cowpeas,  or  corn,  thus 
securing  2  crops  each  year  from  the  same  land.  At  the  Tennessee 
Station  ^°  in  a  7-year  trial  an  acre  of  winter  barley,  followed  by 
soybeans  grown  for  grain  and  stover,  produced  508  lbs.  of  gain 
when  fed  to  steers,  while  an  acre  of  barley  followed  by  cowpeas  gave 
451  lbs.  of  gain.  These  returns  show  the  great  possibilities  of  thg 
South  for  beef  production  when  more  than  a  single  crop  is  grown  on 
the  same  land  each  year. 

Miscellaneous  protein-rich  concentrates. — Tho  most  commonly 
fed  to  dairy  cows,  gluten  feed,  dried  distillers'  grains,  and  dried 
brewers'  grcvins  are  all  satisfactory  protein-rich  concentrates  for  beef 
cattle.  Whether  to  use  these  feeds  in  place  of  those  already  dis- 
cussed will  depend  on  their  relative  price. 

III.  Legume  Hay  and  Other  Dry  Roughages 

Value  of  legume  hay. — The  great  importance  of  hay  from  the 
legumes  in  balancing  the  carbonaceous  grains,  such  as  corn,  barley, 
and  wheat,  has  been  pointed  out  earlier  in  this  chapter.  Even  when 
a  ration  of  com  and  such  oarbonaceaus  roughages  as  timothy  hay, 
prairie  hay,  or  corn  fodder  is  properly  supplemented  by  linseed  or 
cottonseed  meal  or  some  other  protein-rich  concentrate,  smaller  gains 

9  Skinner  and  King,  Ind.  Buls.   167,   178;   information  to  the  authors. 

10  Quereau  and  Willson,  information  to  the  authors. 


314  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

will  nearly  always  be  produced  than  when  the  ratioii  consists  of  corn 
and  legume  hay.  This  is  shown  in  the  following-  table,  which  sum- 
marizes the  results  secured  in  4  trials  in  which  2-year-old  942-lb. 
steers  were  fed  for  periods  averaging  158  days: 

Legume  hay  vs.  carbonaceous  roughage  plus  protein-rich  supplement 

Feed  for  100  lbs.  gain 
Daily  Concen-  Roughage 

Average  ration  gain  trates 

Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Lot  I 

Legume  hay,  9.3  lbs.     Corn,  17.9  Iba 2.3  77S  405 

Lot  II 

Carbonaceous  roughage  8.0  lbs.     Corn,   16.4  lbs. 

Supplement,  2.2  lbs 2.0  916  387 

Lot  I,  fed  legume  hay  and  corn,  gained  on  the  average  0.3  lb,  more 
per  head  daily  and  required  15.1  per  ct.  less  concentrates  and  about 
the  same  amount  of  roughage  as  Lot  II,  fed  the  equally  well-balanced 
but  less  palatable  ration  in  which  the  roughage  was  prairie  hay, 
timothy  hay,  or  corn  stover  with  a  small  amount  of  oat  straw.  Onl^^ 
when  silage,  appetizing  as  well  as  nutritious,  is  fed  is  it  possible  to 
provide, a  ration  which  will  equal  one  where  the  roughage  is  legume 
hay.  Even  on  farms  where  much  Legume  hay  is  raised,  considerable 
carbonaceous  roughage,  such  as  corn  and  sorghum  stover,  straw,  and 
hay  from  the  grasses,  is  normally  produced.  Tho  such  roughage  is 
inferior  to  legume  hay  when  fed  alone,  satisfactory  and  cheap  gains 
may  be  secured  when  it  is  fed  with  legume  hay  as  part  of  the  roughage. 

Legume  hays  compared. — Trials  at  the  Indiana  Station  "  show  that 
when  fed  in  rations  containing  ample  protein  clover  and  alfalfa  hay 
have  about  equal  value.  However,  since  alfalfa  hay  is  considerably 
richer  in  protein  than  clover  hay,  it  is  more  valuable  for  balancing 
rations  low  in  this  nutrient. 

In  a  trial  at  the.  South  Dakota  Station  ^-  sweet  clover  hay  was  prac- 
tically equal  to  alfalfa  hay  for  fattening  steers.  Cowpea  hay,  of 
much  importance  in  the  South,  proved  fully  equal  to  clover  hay  in  a 
trial  at  the  Missouri. Station.^'^  Cowpeas  are  often  sown  in  corn  at  the 
last  cultivation  and  the  vines  and  corn  forage  grazed  after  the  ear 
corn  has  been  gathered.  Such  practice  tends  to  soil  improvement  as 
well  as  cheap  meat  production. 

Corn  fodder;  corn  stover. — Tho  there  is  more  waste  in  feeding 
com  fodder  than  corn  silage,  where  the  crop  can  not  be  ensiled  corn 

11  Skinner   and  King,   Ind.   Bui.   178;    information  to  the  authors. 

12  Wilson,  S.  D.  Bui.  160. 

13  Waters,  Mo.  Bui.  76. 


FEEDS  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE 


315 


fodder  is  a  cheap  and  satisfactory  roughage  for  fattening  cattle,  giv- 
ing especially  good  results  when  used  with  legume  hay.  Wlien  thus 
fed,  bright  corn  stover  may  form  half  the  roughage  allowance  with 
excellent  results.  In  2  trials  at  the  Nebraska  Station "  steers  fed 
half  corn  stover  and  half  alfalfa  hay  with  corn  made  as  large  gains 
as  others  fed  alfalfa  hay  and  corn. 

Roughages  for  the  plains  district.— In  the  semi-arid  districts  fod- 
der and  stover  from  both  the  sweet  and  the  grain  sorghums  are  most 


Fig.  87. — The  Type  op  Calves  for  Baby  Beef  Production 

Blocky  calves  of  good  type  and  conformation  must  be  selected  for  baby  beef 
production,  as  others  will  not  usually  reach  the  desired  maturity  and  finish  at 
this  early  age. 


useful  feeds  in  beef  production,  when  combined  with  legume  ha}'  or 
with  sufficient  nitrogenous  concentrates  to  balance  the  ration. 

At  the  Hays,  Kansas,  Substation  ^'^  4  lots  of  yearling  heifers  were 
wintered  on  1  lb.  of  linseed  meal,  10  lbs.  silage,  2.6  lbs.  straw,  and 
either  kafir  stover,  sorghum  stover,  damaged  alfalfa  hay,  or 
Sudan  hay  in  addition.  Tho  the  cost  of  feed  and  labor  was  but  5.7 
to  6.3  cts.  per  head  daily,  the  heifers  made  large  enough  gains  to  put 
them  in  condition  to  make  good  use  of  pasture  the  next  summer. 
This  trial  well  shows  the  possibilities  in  beef  production  when  wise 

1*  Smith,  Nebr.  Buls.  90,  93,  100. 

15  Cochel,  Kan.  Industrialist,  May  1,  1915. 


316  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

use  is  made  of  bj^-product  roughages  that  are  commonly  wasted  in 
grain  farming. 

Cottonseed  hulls. — For  many  years  cottonseed  meal  and  cotton- 
seed hulls  formed  the  standard  ration  for  fattening  cattle  in  the 
South.  On  this  combination  steers  made  suiTorisingly  good  gains. 
For  example,  at  the  Texas  Station  ^^  yearling  steers  given  these  feeds 
made  nearly  as  large  gains  as  others  fed  corn-and-cob  meal  and  al- 
falfa hay.  Trials  at  the  southern  stations  have  shown,  however,  that 
corn  silage  and  cottonseed  meal  usually  make  slightly  larger  and  con- 
siderably cheaper  gains  than  cottonseed  hulls  and  cottonseed  meal. 

IV,    Succulent  Feeds 

Silage  in  beef  production. — The  use  of  silage  is  fast  revolutioniz- 
ing the  feeding  of  beef  cattle,  just  as  it  has  the  feeding  of  milch  cows 
in  the  leading  dairy  sections  of  our  country.  Breeding  cows  and 
stock  cattle  may  be  maintained  in  winter  in  good  condition  on  silage 
from  well-matured  com  or  the  sorghums,  with  a  limited  amount  of 
legume  hay  or  a  small  allowance  of  such  nitrogenous  concentrates  as 
cottonseed  or  linseed  meal.  For  growing  animals  this  palatable  suc- 
culence can  not  be  excelled,  when  fed  in  proper  combination  with 
legume  hay  or  concentrates  rich  in  protein. 

On  well-balanced  rations  in  which  silage  is  the  chief  roughage  the 
steer  will  fatten  rapidly  and  reach  a  high  finish  on  a  moderate  allow- 
ance of  expensive  concentrates.  By  feeding,  during  the  first  stages 
of  fattening,  only  silage  and  either  legume  hay  or  a  small  allowance 
of  some  nitrogenous  concentrate  to  balance  the  ration,  the  feed  cost 
of  the  gains  may  usually  be  still  further  reduced.  At  first  it  was 
thought  that  silage-fed  cattle  shrank  more  in  shipment  than  those  fin- 
ished on  dry  roughage.  Trials  have  now  abundantly  shown,  how- 
ever, that  if  silage  is  withheld  for  the  last  day  or  two  before  shipment 
and  dry  roughage  fed  instead,  cattle  thus  fattened  will  not  shrink 
any  more  than  those  receiving  no  silage. 

Corn  silage. — Silage  from  well-matured  corn,  carrying  an  abun- 
dance of  ears  and  a  high  proportion  of  grain,  is  the  best  of  all  silage 
for  beef  cattle.  Such  silage  aids  materially  in  reducing  the  amount 
of  concentrates  which  need  be  supplied  in  addition.  To  show  the 
good  results  from  feeding  corn  silage  there  are  summarized  in  the 
following  table  the  results  of  10  trials  where  corn  silage  was  added  to 
the  already  excellent  ration  of  shelled  corn,  cottonseed  or  linseed 
meal,  and  clover  or  alfalfa  hay.  In  these  trials  2-year-old  steers 
averaging  1,006  lbs.  in  weight  were  fed  for  an  average  of  162  days. 

16  Craig,  Tex.  Bui.  76. 


FEEDS  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE  317 

Value  of  corn  silage  ivhen  added  to  an  already  excellent  ration 

Feed  for  100  lbs.  gain             Feed  cost 

Daily          Concen-  of  100 

Average   ration                                    gain             trates              Hay  Silage      lbs.  gain 

Lbs.             Lbs.               Lbs.  Lbs.         Dollars 
Lot  I 

Legume  hay,  10.7  lbs. 
Shelled  corn,  IS.O  lbs. 
Supplement,  2.8  lbs 2.47  849  435  ...  11.56 

Lot  II 

Corn  silage,  23.6  lbs. 
Legume  hay,  3.8  lbs. 

Shelled  corn,  15.0  lbs. 

Supplement,  2.9  lbs 2.51  716  152  952  10.18 

The  steers  in  Lot  II,  given  a  heavy  allowance  of  silage,  consumed 
23.6  lbs.  per  head  daily  and  ate  3  lbs.  less  corn  and  6.9  lbs.  less  legume 
hay  than  those  in  Lot  I.  The  silage  ration  did  not  produce  ap- 
preciably larger  gains  than  did  legume  hay  fed  as  the  sole  roughage. 
The  principal  advantage  from  feeding  silage  is  shown  in  the  feed 
required  per  100  lbs.  gain  and  in  the  feed  cost  of  the  gains.  The 
saving  in  concentrates  and  hay  made  by  feeding  silage  reduced  the 
feed  cost  of  the  gains  $1.38  per  100  lbs.,  a  sum  which  often  repre- 
sents the  difference  betw^een  a  loss  and  a  fair  profit.  The  silage-fed 
steers  were  slightly  better  finished  on  the  average  and  sold  for  3  cents 
more  per  100  lbs.  than  those  fed  no  silage. 

Supplement  needed  with  unlimited  silage  allowance. — We  have 
seen  earlier  in  this  chapter  that  when  steers  are  fed  corn  with  clover 
or  alfalfa  hay  as  the  only  roughage,  they  eat  sufficient  of  such  pro- 
tein-rich hay  to  balance  their  ration  fairly  well.  Hence,  adding  a 
supplement,  such  as  cottonseed  or  linseed  meal,  does  not  greatly  in- 
crease the  gains.  However,  if  the  steers  are  given  all  the  corn  silage 
they  will  eat  in  addition  to  corn  and  legume  hay,  owing  to  the  palata- 
bility  of  the  silage,  they  will  then  generally  eat  but  3  to  6  lbs  of  hay 
per  head  daily.  Trials  at  the  Indiana  Station  ^^  show  that  when  clover 
hay  is  fed,  the  small  amount  eaten  is  not  sufficient  to  balance  the 
ration  properly  and  that  about  2.5  lbs.  of  cottonseed  meal  or  the 
equivalent  of  other  protein-rich  supplements  should  be  fed.  Other 
trials  show  that  there  is  less  advantage  in  adding  a  supplement  to  a 
ration  of  alfalfa  hay,  com  silage  and  com,  doubtless  due  to  the  rich- 
ness of  this  hay  in  protein.^® 

Silage  as  the  sole  roughage. — AVhether  steers  fed  corn  silage  only 
for  roughage  will  make  as  large  gains  as  those  supplied  some  other 
dry  roughage  in  addition  is  important  to  the  cattle  feeder.     In  each 

17  Skinner,  Cochel,  and  King,  Ind.  Buls.  129,  153,  167,  178. 

18  Bliss  and  Lee,  Nebr.  Bui.  151  and  information  to  the  authors;  Rusk,  III. 
Station,  Breeder's  Gaz.,  61,  1912,  p.   1041. 


318  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

of  9  trials  at  5  different  stations  one  lot  of  2-year-old  steers  was  fed 
corn  and  cottonseed  or  linseed  meal  with  corn  silage  as  the  only 
roughage,  while  another  lot  was  fed  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  in  addition. 
The  steers  fed  silage  as  the  sole  roughage  gained  0.12  lb.  less  per 
head  daily  on  the  average,  but  the  feed  cost  was  74  cents  less  per 
100  lbs.  of  gain  than  with  the  steers  fed  legume  hay  in  addition. 
However,  the  steers  fed  legume  hay  were  slightly  better  finished  and 
brought  on  the  average  7  cents  more  per  100  lbs.  than  the  others.  In 
some  of  the  trials  they  sold  for  enough  more  to  offset  the  more  expen- 
sive gains,  so  that  they  returned  a  greater  profit. 

In  later  trials  at  the  Indiana  Station  ^^  it  was  found  that  oat  straw 
satisfied  the  desire  of  silage-fed  steers  for  dry  roughage  as  well  as  did 
clover  hay.  The  gains  were  no  larger  on  a  ration  of  shelled  com, 
cottonseed  meal  (2.5  lbs.  daily  per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight),  corn  silage, 
and  clover  hay  than  when  oat  straw  was  substituted  for  the  clover 
hay.  It  should  be  pointed  out  that  these  results  would  not  have  been 
secured  had  not  sufficient  cottonseed  meal  been  fed  to  balance  the  oat 
straw,  corn  silage,  and  corn  ration.  These  extensive  trials  teach  that 
steers  will  usually  make  larger  gains  and  reach  a  higher  finish  when 
fed  a  small  amount  of  dry  roughage  in  addition  to  silage.  An  im- 
portant fact  is  that  this  dry  roughage  may  consist  of  such  cheap 
material  as  oat  straw,  rather  than  the  more  expensive  legume  hay, 
when  a  nitrogenous  concentrate  is  fed  to  balance  the  ration. 

Silage  with  small  concentrate  allowance. — It  has  already  been 
pointed  out  that  it  is  often  profitable  to  feed  only  roughage  during 
the  first  part  of  the  fattening  period,  or  else  roughage  with  2  or  3 
lbs.  of  some  protein-rich  concentrate,  if  this  is  needed  to  balance  the 
ration.  Especially  good  results  are  secured  under  this  system  where 
the  chief  roughage  is  silage  from  well-eared  corn.  The  following 
table,  summarizing  a  trial  at  the  South  Dakota  Station  -^  with  648-lb. 
steers  fed  146  days,  shows  that  good  gains  may  be  secured  with  corn 
silage  Avhen  only  a  small  amount  of  concentrates  is  fed  thruout  the 
entire  fattening  period. 

Fattening  steers  on  silage  with  a  small  concentrate  allowance 

Feed  for  100  lbs.  gain        Feed 
Daily       Conceu-        Corn    cost  of  100 
Average  ration  gain 

Lbs. 

/,      Linseed  meal,  3.0  lbs.     Silage,  48.3  lbs 2.4 

//,     Cottonseed  meal,  3.0  lbs.     Silage,  41.3  lbs 2.0 

///,  Dried  distillers'  gr.,  3.0  lbs.     Silage,  44.0  lbs.  .2.2 

*  Linseed    meal   and   cottonseed   meal,    $32.00;    dried   distillers'    grain 
silage,  $4.00  per  ton. 

19  Skinner  and  King,  Ind.  Buls.   163,  167. 

20  Wilson,  S.  D.  Bui.  148. 


trates 

silage 

lbs.  gain.* 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Dollars 

120 

1,970 

5.86 

1.50 

2,120 

6.64 

130 

2,030 

5.50 

grains, 

$24.00; 

and   corn 

FEEDS  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE 


319 


The  silage  was  of  poor  quality,  for  it  was  cut  after  having  been 
thrice  frosted  and  when  most  of  the  ears  were  in  the  milk  stage. 
Yet,  with  only  3  lbs.  of  concentrates  per  head  daily  and  this  poor 
silage  as  the  sole  roughage,  these  steers  made  surprisingly  good  gains. 
With  feeds  at  the  high  prices  indicated  the  gains  were  exceedingly 
cheap.     This  trial  shows  the  possibilities  of  producing  cheap   beef 


.-'^-- 

mn 

-fl 

y^  ^^f^   .**i-,  _.4t,i|y| 

=;:>?»?   ""^ 

Fig.  88. — The  Use  of  Silage  Is  Ketvolutionizing  Beef  Making 

Baby  beeves  fattening  on  kafir  silage  and  cottonseed  meal  in  a  Texas  feed  lot. 
(From  The  Southwest  Trail,  Rock  Island  Lines.) 

thru  the  use  of  corn  silage  and  but  a  small  amount  of  high-grade  con- 
centrates. Tho  steers  so  fattened  may  not  yield  "prime"  beef,  year- 
lings such  as  these  will  furnish  meat  of  a  quality  which  will  please 
all  but  the  most  exacting. 

Corn  silage  vs.  shock  corn. — The  superiority  of  corn  silage  over 
shock  corn  or  corn  fodder  is  well  shown  in  a  trial  at  the  Illinois 


320  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Station  -^  in  which  growing  beef  calves  were  fed  either  corn  silage  or 
shock  corn  from  the  same  field,  with  2  lbs.  of  oats  and  4.0  to  4.6  lbs. 
of  mixed  hay  per  head  daily.  The  silage-fed  calves  made  slightly 
larger  gains,  but  the  chief  advantage  lay  in  the  fact  that  more  of  the 
shock  corn  was  wasted  and  hence  the  corn  from  a  much  larger  area 
was  needed  to  feed  the  steers  getting  shock  corn  than  for  those  fed 
silage.  Taking  everything  into  consideration,  the  corn  silage  from 
an  acre  was  worth  30  per  ct.  more  than  the  shock  corn  from  the 
same  area.  In  a  trial  at  the  ]\Iissouri  Station  -^  with  fattening  steers 
the  difference  was  still  greater,  silage  being  worth  over  50  per  ct. 
more  than  the  shock  corn  from  the  same  area. 

Silage  from  other  crops. — In  silage  from  the  sorghums  the  feeder 
of  the  semi-arid  regions  has  an  admirable  substitute  for  corn  silage. 
In  3  trials  at  the  Kansas  Station  23  steer  calves  were  wintered  on  about 
26  lbs.  of  corn,  kafir,  or  sweet  sorghum  silage  per  head  daily,  with  1 
lb.  of  cottonseed  meal  or  1  lb.  of  corn  and  1  lb.  of  linseed  meal  in 
addition.  All  lots  made  satisfactory  gains  and  the  several  kinds  of 
silage  had  about  the  same  feeding  value.  The  feeder  in  this  section 
should  grow  for  silage  whichever  crop  will  yield  the  greatest  tonnage. 

The  southern  beef  producer  has  available  not  only  corn  silage  but 
also  silage  from  sweet  sorghum,  corn  or  sorghum  grown  with  cowpeas 
or  soybeans,  and,  in  the  Gulf  region,  Japanese  cane. 

Roots. — Wherever  corn  or  the  sorghums  thrive,  silage  from  these 
crops  provides  cheaper  succulence  than  do  roots.  In  northern  dis- 
tricts where  root  crops  flourish  but  where  corn  will  not  mature  suffi- 
ciently for  silage,  roots  are  a  valuable  feed  for  beef  cattle.  When 
only  6  to  9  lbs.  was  fed  per  head  daily,  roots  proved  fully  equal, 
pound  for  pound,  to  good  corn  silage  in  a  trial  at  the  South  Dakota 
Station. 2*  At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College,-^  where  larger  al- 
lowances of  roots  were  fed,  silage  had  a  somewhat  higher  value  per 
100  lbs.  than  roots,  due  to  the  larger  percentage  of  dry  matter  it  con- 
tains. 

In  Great  Britain  roots  are  extensively  used  for  fattening  cattle, 
from  35  to  as  much  as  150  lbs.  per  head  daily  being  fed  along  with 
6  to  7  lbs.  protein-rich  concentrates,  such  as  linseed  meal,  cottonseed 
meal,  dried  brewers'  and  distillers'  grains,  and  peanut  cake.  The 
roots  are  commonly  pulped  and  mixed  with  the  concentrates  and  hay 
or  straw  before  feeding.  By  this  means  large  amounts  of  cheap 
roughages  are  utilized.     On  this  small  allowance  of  concentrates  and 

21  Mumford,  111.  Bui.   73. 

22  Allison,  Mo.   Bui.   112. 

23Cochel,  Kan.  Bui.   198;   Kan.  Industrialist,  Apr.  18,   1914,  May  1,   1915. 

24  Wilson,  S.  D.  Bui.   137. 

25  Day,  Ont.  Agr.  Col.,  Rpts.  1901,  1902. 


FEEDS  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE  321 

heavy  allowance  of  roots  the  cattle  make  excellent  gains  and  reach 
a  satisfactory  finish.  With  the  high  prices  for  concentrates  now 
prevailing  in  this  country,  our  feeders  may  wisely  adopt  a  similar 
system  of  beef  production,  employing  silage  from  corn  and  the 
sorghums  instead  of  the  roots  which  are  the  basis  of  English  feeding. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  do  feeding  experiments  show  as  to  the  adA'antage  of  supplementing 
corn  with  legume  hay  or  protein-rich  concentrates  for  fattening  cattle? 

2.  Discuss  the  preparation  of  corn  for  beef  cattle. 

3.  How  do  barley,  wheat,  oats,  the  grain  sorghums,  millet,  and  rough  rice 
compare  with  corn  in  value  for  fattening  cattle? 

4.  Would  you  use  cane  or  beet  molasses  in  fattening  cattle  in  your  locality? 

5.  Discuss  the  use  of  cottonseed  meal  for  fattening  cattle,  especially  the 
amounts  to  be  fed  under  various  conditions. 

6.  State  the  value  of  other  protein-rich  concentrates  important  in  beef  pro- 
duction. 

7.  How  does  a  ration  of  corn  and  legume  hay  compare  in  value  with  one  of 
corn,  carbonaceous  haj%  and  a  protein-rich  supplement? 

8.  Discuss  the  use  of  corn  fodder,  corn  stover,  and  cottonseed  hulls  for  cattle. 

9.  What  are  the  advantages  of  feeding  silage  to  fattening  cattle? 

10.  What  have  trials  shown  concerning  (a)  the  need  of  a  supplement  when 
corn  silage  is  fed,  (b)  the  use  of  silage  as  the  sole  roughage? 

11.  How  does  an  acre  of  cured  corn  forage  compare  in  value  with  the  silage 
from  the  same  area? 

12.  What  other  crops  furnish  valuable  silage  for  beef  cattle? 

13.  Tell  how  roots  are  used  for  feeding  cattle  in  Great  Britain. 

14.  Using  feeds  available  in  your  section,  compute  tlie  most  economical  ration 
according  to  the  Modified  Wolff-Lehmann  Standard  for  fattening  2-year-old 
steers  averaging  1,100  lbs.  in  weight.  Follow  the  method  given  in  Chapter  VIII 
and  compute  the  ration  for  the  second  50-60  days  of  the  fattening  period. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  SHEEP 

I.     General  Problems  in  Sheep  Husbandry 

The  sheep  is  the  plant  scavenger  of  the  farm.  Because  of  its  dainty 
manner  of  nibbling  herbage,  we  might  suppose  that  its  likes  were  few 
and  dislikes  many,  j-et  no  domestic  animal  is  capable  of  living  on  more 
kinds  of  food.  Grasses,  shrubs,  roots,  and  cereal  grains,  leaves,  bark, 
and  in  times  of  scarcity  fish  and  meat,  all  serve  as  food  for  this  won- 
derfully adaptive  animal.  While  horses  and  cattle  eat  only  about 
half  the  plants  considered  weeds,  less  than  one-tenth  of  them  are 


^^£^_^ 

Fig.  89. — A  Profit-Making  Flock  Cleaning  Up  the  Farm  Lane 

On  many  farms  where  most  of  the  income  is  derived  from  other  sources  a 
flock  of  sheep  would  bring  additional  profits,  since  they  consume  much  food 
wliicli  would  otherwise  be  wasted.      (From  Breeder's  Gazette.) 


refused  Iw  sheep.  They  even  prefer  some  weeds,  when  yet  succulent, 
to  the  common  grasses.  Sheep  graze  more  closely  than  other  stock, 
and  if  many  are  confined  to  one  field  every  green  thing  is  at  length 
consumed.  When  closely  pastured  on  cut-over  timber  lands  they 
derive  much  nourishment  from  the  leaves,  bark,  and  twigs,  destroying 
the  brush  nearly  as  effectively  as  goats.  The  feces  of  the  sheep  show 
the  finest  grinding  of  any  of  the  farm  animals,  and  as  they  relish 

322 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  SHEEP  323 

most  weed  seeds  this  further  fits  them  as  weed  destroyers.  As  sheep 
graze,  their  droppings  are  distributed  more  uniformly  than  with 
other  stock.  At  nightfall  they  instinctively  seek  the  higher,  usually 
poorer,  land  and  thus  leave  their  droppings  where  most  needed. 
Thru  increasing  the  fertility  of  the  pastures  it  grazes,  this  animal  has 
won  the  title  of  "The  Golden  Hoof." 

Only  a  relatively  small  investment  is  necessary  to  start  in  sheep 
husbandry,  since  the  foundation  animals  cost  but  little  and  the  flock 
increases  rapidly.  Sheep  require  neither  expensive  barns  nor  im- 
plements and  only  a  minimum  of  care  and  attention  during  the  busy 
summer  season.  In  wool  and  in  the  flesh  of  her  off-spring,  the  ewe 
gives  double  returns  each  year.  With  fair  prices,  the  wool  pays  for 
her  maintenance,  leaving  as  profit  all  income  from  the  lamb  or  lambs, 
after  deducting  the  small  cost  of  the  additional  feed  and  care  they 
require.  Returns  come  quickly,  for  lambs  may  be  marketed  8  or  9 
months  after  the  ewes  are  bred.  While  surpassed  by  the  pig  in  econ- 
omy of  meat  production,  the  lamb  requires  less  feed  per  pound  of 
product  than  the  steer.  Because  sheep  readily  consume  food  which 
would  otherwise  be  wasted,  a  flock  will  prove  profitable  on  many 
farms  where  most  of  the  income  is  derived  from  other  sources.  On 
rough  or  hilly  land  that  cannot  be  economically  tilled  sheep  may  often 
be  the  main  live  stock  of  the  farm.  Tho  the  cost  of  maintaining  them 
may  be  lowered  thru  their  utilization  of  feed  that  would  otherwise 
be  wasted,  one  must  not  expect  profitable  production  from  such  feed 
alone. 

Types  of  sheep. — The  original  fine-wool  or  ^Merino  sheep  were  de- 
veloped primarily  for  the  production  of  wool  and  have  bodies  which, 
like  that  of  the  dairy  cow,  are  inclined  to  be  angular  in  form.  At  the 
other  extreme  we  have  the  mutton  sheep,  comprising  the  middle-  and 
long-wooled  breeds,  which  were  developed  in  Great  Britain  primarily 
for  the  production  of  meat,  with  wool  secondary.  In  shape  of  body 
these  breeds  resemble  the  beef  breeds  of  cattle,  being  blocky  and 
compact.  During  recent  years  the  Delaine-Merinos  and  the  Ram- 
bouillets  have  been  developed  from  the  original  Spanish  Merinos  with 
the  object  of  securing  a  fine-wool  sheep  that  would  furnish  more  mut- 
ton. These  are  of  dual-purpose  type,  between  the  two  extremes  in 
form  of  body. 

Size  of  flock.— In  the  grazing  districts  of  the  West  thousands  of 
sheep  carrying  more  or  less  INIerino  blood  are  held  in  single  bands 
where  the  range  furnishes  suflicient  feed,  and  tens  of  thousands  may 
be  successfully  fed  together,  as  is  still  done  with  range  sheep  which 
are  brought  to  feeding  points  in  the  western  states  and  in  the 
Mississippi  valley. 


324  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

In  the  humid  regions,  however,  two  hundred  sheep  of  the  mutton 
breeds  are  as  many  as  can  usually  be  successfully  managed  in  one 
flock,  for  when  the  farm  is  heavily  stocked  with  sheep,  the  troubles 
from  stomach  worms  and  other  parasites  are  greatly  increased.  The 
beginner  had  best  begin  with  a  flock  of  25,  increasing  the  number  as 
experience  grows. 

Fattening  sheep  of  different  ages. — The  following  table,  giving 
the  results  of  an  88-day  trial  at  the  Montana  Station,^  shows  that 
lambs  make  much  more  economical  gains  than  do  older  sheep : 

Fattening  range  sheep  of  different  ages 

Average  ration  Av.  wt.  Av.  Av.  Feed     for      100 

Clover  at  be-  daily  total              lbs.    gain 

Age  when  fed                        Barley       hay  ginning  gain  gain  Barley      Clover 

hay 

Lbs.         Lbs.  Lbs.          Lbs.  Lbs.          Lbs.          Lbs. 

Lambs     0.7         2.1  G3  0.27  23.7         253            763 

One-year-old  wethers 0.7         3.8  95  0.27  23.5         256         1,413 

Two-year-old  wethers    0.7         4.1  116  0.28  24.3         248         1,469 

Aged  ewes   0.7         2.3  92  0.18  15.6         387         1,320 

It  will  be  observed  that  all  lots,  except  the  aged  ewes,  made  prac- 
tically the  same  daily  and  total  gains.  All  were  fed  the  same  amount 
of  grain,  but  the  lambs  ate  only  about  half  as  much  hay  as  the  year- 
lings or  2-year-olds.  Hence,  the  gains  of  the  lambs  were  much  more 
economical.  In  other  trials  at  the  same  Station,  lambs  made  not  only 
more  economical  but  also  more  rapid  gains  than  yearling  wethers. 

Not  only  do  lambs  make  cheaper  gains,  but  thej^  also  bring  a  higher 
price  per  100  lbs.,  due  to  the  fact  that  their  tender,  juicy,  well- 
flavored  meat  is  popular  with  Americans.  Moreover,  when  the 
animals  are  fattened  as  lambs  the  money  invested  is  sooner  returned, 
and  there  is  less  risk  from  death  and  accident.  Therefore,  but  few 
lambs  are  held  over  to  be  fattened  as  yearlings  or  2-year-olds.  Owing 
to  their  tendency  to  grow,  lambs  fatten  more  slowly  than  do  mature 
wethers.  Since  they  are  making  not  only  fat  but  also  lean  meat,  the 
ration  should  be  somewhat  narrower;  that  is,  contain  more  protein, 
than  is  needed  for  fattening  mature  sheep.  However,  a  ration  which 
is  too  narrow  will  unduly  stimulate  growth,  and  not  fatten  them 
properly.  The  food  requirements  of  fattening  lambs  of  various 
weights  are  given  in  Appendix  Table  V,  as  are  also  feeding  standards 
for  maintaining  mature  sheep  and  for  breeding  ewes. 

Shelter  and  exercise. — Above  every  other  animal  on  the  farm,  the 
sheep  should  be  kept  dry  as  to  both  coat  and  feet  to  avoid  disease. 
With  dry  winter  quarters  sheep  will  stand  severe  cold  without  injury. 
One  thickness  of  matched  boards  makes  the  barn  or  shed  where  sheep 

1  Shaw,  Mont.   Bui.   35 ;   see  also  Mont.   Buls.   47,   59. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  SHEEP  325 

are  confined  sufficiently  warm  in  the  northern  states,  except  for  win- 
ter lambs.  Ample  ventilation  is  of  great  importance,  but  drafts 
must  be  avoided.  On  the  western  plains,  it  is  even  more  necessary  to 
protect  sheep  from  cold  winds  than  from  rain.  Sunshine,  good  drain- 
age, and  conveniences  for  feeding  are  the  other  requisites  of  a  good 
sheep  barn. 

In  late  spring  and  early  summer  the  flock  should  be  sheltered  from 
cold  rains,  if  possible,  for  exposure  is  dangerous,  especially  to  young- 
lambs.  In  summer,  if  there  is  no  natural  shade  in  the  pastures,  the 
flock  should  have  access  to  a  darkened  but  well-ventilated  shed.  A 
fringed  curtain  thru  which  the  sheep  may  pass  will  keep  back  flies 
from  this  retreat.  In  winter  an  open  shed  is  the  only  shelter  needed 
even  in  the  northern  states  for  fattening  lambs  and  sheep,  heavy- 
coated  and  filled  with  rich  grain  and  roughage.  A  dry,  littered  yard, 
having  a  sunny  exposure  and  provided  with  a  well-bedded,  com- 
fortable shed  opening  to  the  east  or  south,  extending  along  the  wind- 
ward side,  is  ideal  for  fattening.  In  the  arid  regions,  protection  from 
driving  winds  and  sandstorms  is  all  that  is  essential.  Even  in  the 
South  the  sheep  should  be  protected  from  winter  rains. 

For  the  breeding  flock  abundant  exercise  thruout  the  year  is  essen- 
tial. Fattening  animals,  however,  make  better  gains  if  allowed  only 
moderate  exercise. 

Water;  salt. — Opinions  as  to  the  water  requirements  of  sheep  vary 
more  than  with  any  other  domestic  animal.  In  countries  with  heavy 
dews  and  ample  succulent  feed  in  summer,  and  where  roots  are 
largely  used  in  winter,  water  may  possibly  be  denied  sheep,  but  or- 
dinarily it  is  a  necessity.  Because  of  the  danger  of  infestation  with 
internal  parasites,  drinking  from  stagnant  pools  must  be  avoided. 
On  the  arid  ranges  of  the  Southwest,  when  grazing  on  certain  succu- 
lent plants  like  singed  cacti,  sheep  sometimes  go  two  months  without 
water.  The  wise  shepherd  will  under  all  usual  conditions  supply  his 
sheep  with  water  daily,  providing  from  1  to  6  quarts,  according  to 
feed  and  weather.  Ewes  suckling  lambs,  and  fattening  sheep  require 
more  water  than  those  being  simply  carried  thru  the  winter. 

Sheep  especially  require  salt,  which  should  be  available  at  all  times, 
for  an  irregular  supply  induces  scouring.  In  winter  it  may  be  given 
in  a  trough  used  only  for  this  purpose.  In  summer  salt  may  be  ren- 
dered doubly  useful  by  scattering  it  on  sprouts  growing  about  stumps, 
on  brush  patches,  or  over  noxious  weeds. 

Grinding  grain;  cutting  or  grinding  hay.— Of  all  farm  animals, 
the  sheep  is  best  able  to  do  its  own  grinding,  and  with  few  exceptions 
only  whole  grain  should  be  furnished.  The  common  saying  of  feed- 
ers, ' '  a  sheep  which  cannot  grind  its  own  grain  is  not  worth  feeding, ' ' 


326  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

is  true.  Valuable  breeding  sheep  with  poor  teeth  may  be  continued 
in  usefulness  if  given  ground  grain.  Small,  hard  grains,  such  as 
wheat,  bald  barley,  and  millet,  should  be  ground,  or  better,  crushed 
for  sheep. 

Trials  at  the  Colorado  Station  ^  show  that  cutting  or  grinding  good- 
quality  alfalfa  hay  is  not  profitable.  With  poor-quality  hay,  cutting 
into  three-fourth  inch  lengths  may  be  profitable,  provided  the  cost 
is  not  more  than  $1  per  ton,  for  less  will  be  wasted.  Even  grinding 
may  be  warranted,  if  the  cost  is  not  more  than  $3  to  $4  per  ton. 

Self  feeders;  feed  racks. — To  save  time  and  labor  some  feeders 
place  grain  sufficient  for  a  week  or  more  in  a  self  feeder,  and  allow 
fattening  sheep  or  lambs  to  eat  at  will.  From  trials  with  lambs  and 
yearling  wethers  ^  F.  B.  Mumf ord  concludes  that  fattening  lambs  by 
means  of  a  self-feeder  is  an  expensive  practice,  since  more  feed  is  then 
required  for  100  lbs.  gain.  The  advantage  of  a  self  feeder,  even  with 
corn  at  a  low  price,  is  small,  as  it  is  necessary  to  feed  by  hand  the  first 
5  or  6  weeks  of  the  feeding  period  to  accustom  the  sheep  to  a  full 
feed  of  grain  before  them  all  the  time.  Numerous  observations  show 
that  the  death  rate  is  higher  when  self  feeders  are  used.  The  more 
concentrated  the  grain,  the  greater  the  danger  in  feeding  it  thru  the 
self  feeder.  Bulky  wheat  screenings  have  been  satisfactorily  fed  in 
self  feeders. 

Morton  *  reports  that  under  Colorado  conditions,  when  lambs  are 
fattened  in  the  open,  self -feed  hay  racks,  costing  $1  per  running  foot 
and  accommodating  4  lambs  per  foot,  2  on  a  side,  saved  sufficient  hay, 
compared  with  feeding  it  on  the  ground  outside  the  pens,  to  pay  their 
cost  in  3  seasons. 

Grain  and  roughage  should  be  fed  separately  to  sheep.  If  sheep  are 
fed  in  close  quarters  the  hay  should  be  supplied  daily,  since  they  dis- 
like provender  that  has  been  "blown  on,"  as  shepherds  say.  In  feed- 
ing sheep  in  open  lots,  as  is  done  thruout  the  West,  racks  sufficiently 
large  to  hold  roughage  for  several  days  are  often  used.  Grain  troughs 
should  have  a  wide,  flat  bottom,  forcing  the  sheep  to  eat  slowly.  Fif- 
teen inches  of  linear  trough  space  should  be  provided  for  each  animal. 

II.     Hints  on  Feeding  and  Caring  for  Sheep 

Feed  and  care  of  ewes. — Experienced  shepherds  have  found  that 
ewes  which  are  gaining  rapidly  in  flesh  at  breeding  time  are  more 
apt  to  produce  twins  or  triplets  than  if  they  are  poor  in  flesh.  Hav- 
ing more  than  one  lamb  per  ewe  is  most  profitable,  except  on  the 

2  Morton,   Colo.   Buls.   151,   187.  *  Colo.  Bui.  187. 

3  Mich.  Bui.    128:   Mo.  Bui.   115 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  SHEEP  327 

western  ranges,  where  but  little  attention  can  be  given  the  individual 
ewes.  Accordingly,  with  the  farm  flock  it  is  advisable  to  "flush"  the 
ewes  for  2  or  3  weeks  before  they  are  bred ;  i.e.,  to  supply  an  abun- 
dance of  palatable,  nutritious  feed,  such  as  rape,  cabbage,  good  clover 
pasture,  or  grain.  This  is  especially  needed  if  the  ewes  have  run 
down  in  flesh  during  summer  thru  suckling  their  lambs. 

Breeding  ewes  which  are  in  good  condition  in  the  fall  need  little 
or  no  grain  in  winter  until  about  a  month  before  lambing,  if  given  all 
the  bright  legume  hay  they  will  eat  with  an  allowance  of  silage  or 
roots  in  addition.  At  that  time,  or  sooner  if  they  are  not  in  thrifty, 
vigorous  condition,  they  should  be  given  a  limited  amount  of  concen- 
trates, up  to  0.5  per  head  daily,  with  good  roughage.     When  legume 


Fig.  90. — Exercise  Is  Essential  for  the  Ewe  Flock 

In  winter  the  ewes  may  be  forced  to  exercise  by  scattering  roughage  over  a 
nearby  field.      (From  Kleinheinz,  Wisconsin   Station.) 

hay  is  fed,  a  considerable  part  of  the  concentrates  may  be  corn,  bar- 
ley, oats,  kafir,  and  other  carbonaceous  grains.  Mixed  with  these 
should  be  such  feeds  as  wheat  bran,  linseed  meal,  and  dried  brewers' 
grains. 

The  best  roughages  for  ewes  are  the  legume  hays — clover,  alfalfa, 
cowpeas,  and  vetch — all  of  which  are  palatable  and  rich  in  protein, 
and  help  ward  off  constipation,  a  serious  danger  to  the  ewe.  Other 
roughages  which  are  useful  to  feed  with  legume  hay  are  bright  corn 
fodder  or  corn  stover,  oat  hay,  prairie  hay,  and  oat  straw.  Timothy 
hay  is  too  constipating  for  ewes.  Two  to  3  lbs.  of  corn  silage  or 
chopped  roots  per  head  daily  aids  greatly  in  keeping  the  ewes  thrifty. 
Too  much  succulent  feed  may  produce  weak,  flabby  lambs.  One-half 
pound  of  grain,  3  lbs.  of  legume  hay  and  2  to  3  lbs.  of  roots  or  silage 


328  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

daily  should  keep  ewes  of  average  size  in  good  condition  during 
the  winter. 

To  insure  a  crop  of  strong,  healthy  lambs,  exercise  for  the  ewes  in 
winter  is  essential.  They  should  have  access  to  a  dry,  sunny  yard, 
well  protected  from  wind  and  storm,  and  on  all  fair  days  should  be 
forced  to  exercise  by  scattering  roughage  over  a  nearby  field.  When 
the  snow  is  deep,  paths  should  be  broken  out  with  snow  plow  or  stone 
boat.     On  stormy  days  the  sheep  should  remain  indoors. 

To  avoid  udder  troubles,  ewes  should  be  given  but  little  grain  for 
two  or  three  days  after  'lambing,  and  the  allowance  gradually  in- 
creased with  the  demand  for  more  milk  by  the  lamb.  With  good 
roughage  not  over  2  lbs.  of  concentrates  per  ewe  daily  is  necessary. 
Legume  hay  and  succulent  feeds  are  essential  at  this  time,  and  more 
silage  or  roots  may  be  safely  fed  than  before  lambing.  After  being 
turned  to  pasture  the  ewes  need  no  additional  feed,  if  grazing  is  good. 

The  ram. — For  a  good  lamb  crop,  it  is  essential  that  the  ram  be 
kept  in  thrifty,  vigorous  condition.  He  needs  no  grain  while  on  good 
pasture  during  summer,  but  beginning  at  least  a  month  before  breeding 
time  some  concentrates  should  be  fed.  During  the  breeding  season 
he  should  be  fed  such  muscle-forming  foods  as  bran,  oats,  peas,  and 
oil  meal,  and  not  be  allowed  to  run  down  thru  insufficient  feed  or 
over  use.     On  the  other  hand,  he  should  never  become  fat. 

In  winter  the  ram  may  be  kept  thrifty  on  a  daily  allowance  of  0.5  to 
1.0  lb.  of  concentrates,  with  good  roughage.  Some  succulent  food 
is  desirable  but  mangels  and  sugar  beets  should  be  avoided.  Lack  of 
exercise  injures  the  ram's  breeding  powers.  Ram  lambs  need  liberal 
rations  of  muscle-building  foods,  but  should  be  given  little  fat-form- 
ing food. 

Lambingf  time.— In  about  147  days  after  the  ewes  are  bred  the 
lambs  may  be  expected.  During  24  years,  at  the  Wisconsin  Station  ■"' 
the  average  birth  weight  of  lambs  of  the  mutton  breeds  was  9.1  to 
10.6  lbs.  for  single  lambs,  7.7  to  8.5  lbs.  each  for  twins,  and  5.5  to  8.2 
for  triplets.  On  the  average,  161  lambs  were  yeaned  each  year  per 
100  ewes  during  this  period,  a  result  which  can  be  secured  only  with 
good  feed  and  excellent  care. 

The  shepherd  should  always  be  close  at  hand  during  lambing  time 
to  assist  the  ewes  or  any  weak  lambs.  It  is  wise  to  provide  lambing 
pens  for  the  ewes  and  their  newly  born  lambs.  Here  each  ewe  and 
her  young  may  remain  for  a  couple  of  days  until  they  are  wonted  to 
each  other  and  the  lambs  are  strong  enough  to  look  out  for  them- 
selves among  the  flock. 

Raising  the  lambs. — After  about  2  weeks  the  lambs  begin  to  show 

5  Kleinheinz,  Wis.  Rpts.  1902,  1907,  and  information  to  the  autliors. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  SHEEP 


329 


a  desire  for  feed  in  addition  to  their  dam's  milk  and  will  be  found 
nibbling  at  the  feed  trough  beside  their  mothers.  They  should  now 
be  provided  with  both  grain  and  hay  at  one  end  or  corner  of  the 
barn  which  is  fenced  off  by  means  of  a  "lamb  creep"  thru  which  only 
the  lambs  can  enter.  This  may  be  made  of  two  lx6-inch  boards,  to 
which  are  nailed  lx4-inch  vertical  strips  about  3  feet  long,  spaced 
just  far  enough  apart  to  allow 
the  lambs  to  pass  thru  but  keep 
the  ewes  back.  Within  this  en- 
closure there  should  be  a  low, 
shallow  trough  with  an  ob- 
struction lengthwise"  over  the 
top  to  prevent  the  lambs  from 
jumping  into  it.  In  this  tro-ugh 
should  be  sprinkled  a  mixture 
of  such  feeds  as  ground  oats, 
wheat  bran,  corn  meal,  and  lin- 
seed meal.  Fine  alfalfa  or 
second-crop  clover  hay  is  also 
excellent  for  young  lambs. 
The  feed  should  never  be  al- 
lowed to  grow  stale.  Fresh, 
clean  water  should  also  be  pro- 
vided. 

The  change  tp  pasture  should 
be  gradual,  the  ewes  and  lambs 
being  turned  on  grass  for  only  a  few  hours  at  first  and  then  brought 
back  to  shelter,  where  more  feed  awaits  them.  It  is  usually  best  to 
feed  the  lambs  concentrates  in  addition  to  pasture  and  the  milk  they 
get  from  their  dams.  This  may  be  provided  by  means  of  a  "lamb- 
creep"  at  some  convenient  point. 

At  4  to  5  months  of  age*  the  lambs  should  be  weaned,  for  their  own 
good  and  also  to  give  their  mothers  a  rest  before  another  breeding 
season.  If  possible,  advantage  should  be  taken  of  a  cool  spell  and 
the  lambs  and  their  dams  should  be  so  separated  that  neither  can  hear 
the  bleating  of  the  other.  For  a  few  daj^s  the  ewes  should  be  kept 
on  short  pasture  or  dry  feed  to  reduce  their  milk  flow,  and  atten- 
tion must  be  given  their  udders.  The  lambs  should  be  put  on  the 
best  pasture,  such  as  clover  or  rape,  and  given  a  liberal  supply  of 
grain. 

After  weaning,  lambs  that  are  to  be  marketed  early  may  profitably 
be  fed  grain,  but  those  to  be  fattened  in  winter  and  the  ewe  lambs  to 
be  retained  for  the  breeding  flock  need  no  grain  when  the  grazing  is 


Fig.  91. — Meal  time  for  the  lambs. 
Notice  the  lamb  creep  separating  the  ewes 
in  the  background  from  the  lambs.  (From 
Kleinheinz,  Sheep  Management,  Breeds, 
and  Judging.) 


330  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

good.  Ram  lambs  should  be  given  grain  in  fall  to  insure  good  de- 
velopment. 

Stomach  worms. — East  of  the  Mississippi  stomach  worms  are  a 
serious  menace  to  sheep  raising,  lambs  being  especially  liable  to  at- 
tack. The  eggs  of  the  parasite,  which  are  scattered  over  the  pastures 
in  the  droppings  of  the  sheep,  soon  hatch  and  the  worms  may  be  swal- 
lowed by  the  sheep  while  grazing.  Fields  on  which  no  cattle,  sheep, 
or  goats  have  grazed  for  a  year,  and  those  that  have  been  plowed  and 
cultivated  since  sheep  grazed  on  them,  are  usually  free  from  worms. 
Old  permanent  pastures  are  apt  to  be  infested,  as  are  stagnant  water 
pools. 

Trouble  from  stomach  worms  may  be  avoided  by  changing  sheep 
and  lambs  to  fresh  pasture  frequently.  It  is  especially  necessary  to 
place  the  lambs  on  fresh,  clean  pasture  when  they  are  taken  from 
their  dams  at  weaning  time.  Where  sheep  are  suffering  from  the 
worms,  various  drenches  may  be  used.  The  most  common  one  is  1 
tablespoonful  of  gasoline  for  lambs  and  1%  tablespoonfuls  for  large, 
older  sheep,  mixed  with  one-third  pint  of  fresh  cow's  milk  and  1 
tablespoonful  of  raw  linseed  oil.  The  treatment  should  be  repeated 
each  morning  for  three  days,  the  sheep  getting  no  feed  over  night. 

Fattening  lambs  in  the  fall. — Finishing  lambs  for  the  market  in 
the  fall  is  common  with  farmers  who  raise  their  own  lambs  and  with 
many  who  buy  feeder  lambs  from  the  western  ranges.  Until  cold 
weather  the  lambs  may  be  grazed  on  rape,  stubble  fields,  or  other 
pasture,  being  fed  grain  in  addition.  Sometimes  the  lambs  are 
shifted  to  fields  of  standing  corn  after  the  stubble  fields  are  well 
gleaned.  Here  they  feed  on  the  lower  leaves  of  the  corn  stalks  and 
on  rape  or  turnips  sown  at  the  last  cultivation,  finally  eating  more 
or  less  of  the  corn  on  the  ears.  Thrifty  lambs  placed  on  feed  in  the 
early  fall  should  be  ready  for  sale  by  December  or  early  in  January, 
a  season  when  there  is  usually  a  scarcity  of  good  lambs  on  the  market, 
since  the  grass-fed  lambs  have  been  marketed  and  those  in  winter  feed 
lots  are  not  yet  finished. 

Fattening  lambs  in  winter. — Most  western  lambs  are  fattened  for 
market  in  winter.  As  they  usually  have  never  had  grain,  they  must 
be  started  on  feed  slowly  lest  some  be  injured  or  even  killed.  At  first 
they  should  be  given  all  the  roughage  they  will  eat,  with  a  little  grain 
— not  over  0.1  lb.  per  head  daily — sprinkled  thinly  in  the  troughs. 
The  allowance  may  be  gradually  increased  until  in  2  months  or  less 
they  are  on  full  feed. 

Farm-raised  lambs  take  grain  more  readily,  and  in  some  cases  but 
3  or  4  weeks  need  intervene  between  placing  the  lambs  on  feed  and 
full  feeding.     In  all  cases,  before  sheep  are  admitted  to  the  fatten- 


TEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  SHEEP 


331 


ing  pens  they  should  be  examined  by  an  experienced  shepherd,  and 
if  any  evidence  of  scab,  lice,  or  ticks  is  found,  the  flock  should  be 
dipped  most  thoroly. 

With  lambs  which  have  received  no  grain  on  pasture,  the  feeding 
period  should  last  12  to  14  M^eeks,  depending  on  their  condition  and 
the  rapidity  with  which  they  fatten.  For  a  100-day  feeding  period 
the  gains  should  be  25  to  30  lbs.  per  head.  This  gain  added  to  a  lamb 
weighing  originally  55  to  65  lbs.  brings  it  to  the  size  desired  by  the 


Fig.  92. — ^Lambs  Fattening  in 


Many  farmers  find  it  profitable  to  fatten  lambs  in  tlie  fall  on  rape,  stubble 
fields,  or  standing  corn.      (From  Breeder's  Gazette.) 


market,  for  the  demand  is  now  for  plump  lambs  weighing  only  80  to 
90  lbs.,  or  even  less  if  from  the  western  ranges.  As  soon  as  the  lambs 
are  "ripe,"  or  when  the  back  and  the  region  about  the  tail  are  well 
covered  with  fat,  they  should  be  sold,  for  further  gains  can  not  be 
made  at  a  profit. 

Sheep  feeders  do  not  begin  operations  at  an  early  hour  in  winter, 
preferring  not  to  disturb  the  animals  until  after  daybreak.  Usually 
grain  is  first  given,  followed  by  hay  and  water.  The  trough  in  which 
grain  is  fed  should  be  kept  clean  at  all  times,  and  sufficient  space 


332  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

should  be  provided  so  each  animal  may  get  its  share  of  grain.  Reg- 
ularity and  quiet  are  of  especial  importance  with  fattening  lambs 
and  sheep. 

Fattening  in  the  corn  belt  and  eastward. — In  the  corn  belt  and 
eastward  corn  and  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  are  commonly  used  for  fat- 
tening lambs,  wnth  or  without  cottonseed  meal,  linseed  meal,  or  wheat 
bran.  Thruout  these  districts  it  is  usually  most  profitable  to  feed  the 
lambs  all  the  grain  they  will  eat  after  being  brought  to  full  feed. 
Feeders  frequently  fatten  two  lots  of  lambs  the  same  season,  market- 
ing the  first  in  January  and  the  second  late  in  spring.  Should  the 
weather  grow  warm  before  the  lambs  are  finished,  shearing  results  in 
better  gains.  Shelter  is  required  to  protect  the  lambs  from  winter 
storms.  In  the  corn  belt  lambs  are  commonly  allowed  the  freedom 
of  small  yards  with  an  open  shed  or  barn  adjacent,  while  in  the  East 
a  more  forced  system  of  fattening  is  often  followed,  the  lambs  never 
being  turned  out  from  the  barn  or  shed  for  exercise.  In  this  system, 
the  grain  troughs  are  protected  by  vertical  slats  in  such  a  manner 
that  there  is  just  room  for  a  lamb  to  feed  in  each  opening,  and  only 
one  space  is  provided  for  each  lamb.  The  lambs  are  brought  to  full 
feed  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  they  are  then  given  all  the  grain  they 
will  clean  up.  With  such  heavy  feeding  and  scant  exercise,  care 
must  be  taken  to  keep  the  lambs  quiet,  and  a  feeding  space  must  be 
closed  up  whenever  a  lamb  is  removed  from  the  pen,  for  excitement 
and  overeating  cause  heavy  losses  from  apoplexy. 

Fattening-  in  the  West. — In  the  West,  where  hay  is  cheap  compared 
with  grain,  the  allowance  of  grain  is  often  restricted  thruout  the  fat- 
tening period  so  the  lambs  will  eat  more  hay.  Sometimes  hay  only  is 
fed,  but  sheep  cannot  be  made  fat  enough  for  the  large  markets  on 
hay  alone.  Hence  western  feeders  often  give  only  hay  during  the 
first  part  of  the  fattening  period  and  later  add  grain  to  finish  the 
lambs  and  harden  the  flesh.  With  a  light  allowance  of  grain,  the 
lambs  must,  of  course,  be  fed  longer  to  reach  a  given  finish  than  when 
they  are  given  all  the  grain  they  will  eat.  The  feeds  most  commonly 
used  in  the  West  are  corn,  barley,  or  other  cereals,  with  alfalfa  hay, 
and  with  wet  beet  pulp  in  the  vicinity  of  the  beet-sugar  factories. 

In  large  feeding  plants  the  corral,  or  enclosure,  is  commonly  di- 
vided into  2  rows  of  lots  with  a  lane  between,  each  lot  accommodating 
from  400  to  500  lambs.  No  shelter  is  provided,  but  windbreaks  are 
desirable.  The  hay  is  usually  fed  in  the  lanes,  12  to  14  feet  wide, 
extending  between  the  lots.  The  low  fences  bordering  the  lanes  have 
a  7  or  8  inch  space  between  the  first  and  second  boards,  thru  which 
the  lambs  feed  on  the  hay.  About  1  running  foot  of  lane  fencing 
aivd  feed  troughs  is  allowed  each  sheep.     The  hay  from  the  stacks  is 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  SHEEP  333 

hauled  down  the  lanes  and  piled  along  the  fences,  being  pushed  up  to 
them  2  or  3  times  a  day  as  it  is  eaten  away. 

All  lots  are  provided  with  flat-bottomed  troughs  for  feeding  grain. 
There  is  an  extra  or  vacant  lot  at  one  end  of  each  row  of  lots,  likewise 
provided  with  troughs.  At  feeding  time  grain  is  placed  in  the 
troughs  of  this  extra  lot  and  the  lambs  from  the  adjoining  lot  are 
turned  in.  As  soon  as  a  lot  is  vacated,  grain  is  put  in  the  troughs 
of  this  lot,  and  the  lambs  enter  from  the  next  lot,  and  so  on.  At  the 
next  meal  feeding  begins  by  using  the  vacant  lot  at  the  other  end  of 
the  row,  reversing  the  process.  The  feeding  yards  are  usually  located 
on  streams  or  ditches  which  supply  running  water.  Those  on  high 
ground  have  watering  troughs  into  which  the  water  is  pumped.  Salt 
is  liberally  furnished  in  troughs. 

Feeding"  small  bands. — Fattening  great  numbers  of  lambs  at  a 
single  point  reached  its  height  years  ago  when  corn  and  wheat  screen- 
ings ruled  low  in  price,  and  the  large  operator  had  little  competition 
from  the  ranchman  and  farmer  in  finishing  range  lambs  for  the  mar- 
ket. Now  the  price  of  feed  has  increased,  and  the  fattening  of  range 
lambs  in  smaller  bands  has  rapidly  developed  in  the  western  states, 
in  the  corn  belt,  and  farther  eastward.  Most  fortunately  for  a  con- 
servative agriculture,  the  large  operator,  who  often  receives  no  ben- 
efit from  the  great  accumulation  of  rich  manure  in  the  feed  lot,  can- 
not compete  with  the  farmer  who  fattens  one  or  more  carloads  of  lambs 
and  uses  the  manure  for  enriching  his  land.  Prudent  farmers  rightly 
hold  that  enough  fertility  is  returned  to  their  land  thru  the  feed  lot 
to  pay  the  entire  labor  cost  of  feeding.  As  sheep  and  lamb  fattening 
on  range  and  farm  increases,  the  gradual  decline  of  the  old  feed  lot  is 
assured. 

Yield  of  dressed  carcasses;  shrinkage. — The  slaughter  tests  at  the 
various  stations  show  that  lambs  and  yearlings  dress  from  48  to  57 
per  ct.,  depending  on  how  completely  they  are  fattened.  Shaw  "^ 
states  that  fattened  lambs  weighing  over  100  lbs.,  when  4  daj^s  in 
transit,  will  shrink  7  to  8  lbs.  per  head ;  1-year-old  wethers  weighing 
about  120  lbs.,  approximately  10  lbs. ;  and  aged  wethers  and  ewes 
about  12  lbs.  per  head.  When  sheep  are  marketed  off  pasture,  es- 
pecially rape,  excessive  shrinkage  from  scouring  may  be  prevented  by" 
giving  only  dry  feed  for  a  day  or  more  before  shipping.  The  con- 
centrate allowance  should  be  decreased  for  the  same  reason,  and  oats 
are  the  best  grain  for  sheep  in  transit. 

Hot  house  lambs. — During  recent  years  an  increasing  demand  has 
developed  for  winter  or  "hot  house"  lambs.  The  term  "hot  house" 
does  not  imply  that  the  lambs  are  raised  in  artificially  heated  quar- 

6  Management  and  Feeding  of  Sheep,  p.  365. 


334 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


ters,  but  Is  used  because  they  are  produced  out  of  season,  as  are  the 
vegetable  products  of  hot  houses.  The  demand  for  winter  lambs 
comes  from  the  last  of  December  to  Easter,  and  the  ewes  must  ac- 
cordingly be  bred  in  the  spring  instead  of  in  the  fall,  as  usual 
Dorset,  Tunis,  and  Merino  or  Rambouillet  ewes  are  commonly  used 
for  raising  winter  lambs,  for  the  other  breeds  rarely  breed  at  the 
right  season.  After  lambing,  the  ewes  are  fed  so  as  to  yield  an 
abundant  flow  of  milk,  and  the  lambs  are  early  taught  to  eat  grain 
and  forced  rapidly  on  such  feeds  as  corn,  oats,  bran,  and  linseed  meal, 
with  good  legume  ha.y  and  preferably  either  roots  or  silage  in  addi- 
tion.    Thus  forced,  the  best  lambs  weigh  50  to  60  lbs.  at  10  to  12 


m^ 


^"^S?^ 


♦fV  ' W'  a  ^sJ^.;*^-  'Wf- 


mm 


Fig.  93. — Angora  Goats  Clearing  Land  of  Brush 

Goats  are  especially  fond  of  the  leaves  and  twigs  of  brush  and  if  pastured 
closely  enough  will  effectively  kill  the  brush. 


weeks,  when  they  are  ready  for  market.  "Winter  lambs  must  be  fat, 
for  the  condition  of  the  carcass  is  more  important  than  its  size.  To 
be  profitable,  they  must  sell  for  not  less  than  $5  per  head,  and  the 
best  ones  sometimes  bring  $12.  This  specialty  can  be  conducted  with 
profit  only  by  experts  who  have  nearby  markets  that  will  pay  the  high 
prices  such  products  must  command. 

Spring  lambs. — A  less  intensive  system  than  the  preceding  is  the 
production  of  spring  lambs,  which  are  dropped  from  January  to  March 
and  are  usually  marketed  in  May  and  June,  weighing  65  to  90  lbs.,  at 
a  time  of  the  year  when  there  is  a  good  demand.  Raising  spring 
lambs  is  especially  profitable  in  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Virginia,  and 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  SHEEP  335 

states  to  the  southward,  for  here  the  ewes  may  be  largely  maintained 
on  pasture  thruout  the  year,  thus  greatly  lowering  the  feed  bill. 

Goats. — The  raising  of  Angora  goats  for  their  mohair  is  an  im- 
portant industry  in  certain  districts  of  the  United  States,  especially 
Texas,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Oregon,  and  California.  In  the  west- 
ern states  the  goats  graze  upon  rough  land,  utilizing  browse  which 
even  sheep  would  refuse.  In  the  cut-over  districts  of  the  North,  An- 
gora goats  are  useful  in  clearing  land  of  brush  at  a  low  expense. 

In  Europe  the  milch  goat  is  of  importance  as  a  milk  producing 
animal.  By  their  habits  they  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
the  peasants,  or  poorer  classes  of  these  countries,  and  have  hence 
been  appropriately  termed  "the  poor  man's  cow."  While  the  quality 
of  the  milk  may  be  injured  if  the  goat  is  maintained  largely  on  Aveeds, 
kitchen  waste,  and  other  refuse,  they  can  profitably  utilize  much  feed 
which  would  otherwise  be  wasted  about  the  household.  A  good  milch 
goat  should  produce  milk  for  8  to  10  months,  and  yield  2  quarts  or 
more  daily.  The  milch  goat  produces  more  milk,  based  upon  body 
weight,  than  the  cow,  often  yielding  10  times  her  body  weight  an- 
nually, and  also  requires  less  feed  to  produce  100  lbs.  of  milk,  tho 
the  milk  is  higher  in  fat  than  average  cow's  milk.  The  milch  goat 
has  not  yet  attained  importance  in  this  country,  but  it  should  have  a 
place  in  supplying  fresh,  pure  milk  for  households  in  our  cities.  The 
general  principles  of  feeding  and  care  which  have  been  presented  for 
sheep  also  apply  to  goats. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  place  of  sheep  on  the  farm,  the  types  of  sheep,  and  the  size  of 
the  llock. 

2.  Why  are  most  sheep  fattened  as  lambs? 

3.  What  are  the  requirements  of  sheep  for  shelter,  exercise,  water,  and  salt? 

4.  Discuss  the  preparation  of  feed  for  sheep  and  the  use  of  self  feeders. 

5.  How  would  you  feed  and  care  for  breeding  ewes? 

6.  State  how  rams  should  be  fed. 

7.  Tell  briefly  of  the  feed  and  care  of  lambs  from  birth. 

8.  Describe  the  method  of  preventing  trouble  from  stomach  worms  and  of  the 
treatment. 

9.  Outline  the  metiiod  of  fattening  lambs  (a)   in  the  fall,   (b)   in  the  winter. 

10.  How  are  lambs  fattened  (a)  in  the  corn  belt,  (b)  in  the  eastern  states,  (c) 
in  the  West? 

11.  What  is  the  shrinkage  of  sheep  in  transit  and  the  usual  dressing  per- 
centage ? 

12.  Discuss  the  production  of   (a)    hot  house  lambs;    (b)    spring  lambs. 

13.  What  is  the  importance  of  the  two  types  of  goats  in  this  country? 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

FEEDS  FOR  SHEEP 
I.     Concentrates  for  Sheep 

In  the  following  paragraphs,  which  discuss  the  value  of  various 
feeds  for  sheep,  especially  for  fattening  animals,  it  will  be  noted  that 
nearly  all  the  trials  reviewed  were  with  lambs.  This  is  due  to  the 
facts  pointed  out  in  the  preceding  chapter,  that  lambs  make  better 
use  of  their  feed  than  older  animals  and  that  their  flesh  is  in  greater 
demand. 

Indian  corn. — Corn,  the  best  single  grain  for  fattening  sheep,  is 
the  cereal  most  commonly  used  in  this  country  as  far  west  as  Col- 
orado, beyond  which  barley  and  wheat  are  more  generally  fed.  Since 
legume  hay,  rich  in  protein,  admirably  supplements  corn,  the  com- 
bination of  corn  and  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  has  become  a  standard 
ration  for  fattening  sheep  over  a  large  district.  In  this  chapter 
other  rations  will,  where  possible,  be  compared  with  this  successful 
combination.  To  show  the  possibilities  of  these  feeds,  below  are 
averaged  the  results  from  8  stations  with  26  lots,  including  527  lambs, 
which  were  fed  an  unlimited  allowance  of  shelled  corn  and  either 
clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  for  periods  averaging  90  days.  The  results  are 
also  given  from  4  stations  at  which  17  lots,  including  1,180  lambs, 
were  fed  a  limited  allowance  of  shelled  corn  (from  0.7  to  1.1  lbs.  per 
head  daily)  with  the  same  roughages,  in  trials  averaging  92  days. 

Corn  and  legume  hay  for  fattening  lambs 

Initial  Daily  Feed   for    100   lbs.    gain 


Average  ration 

weight 

gain 

Corn 

Hav 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs 

Corn  allowance  unlimited 

Shelled  corn,  1.3  lbs. 

Clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  1.4  lbs.  . .  . 

67 

0.32 

400 

436 

Corn  alloicance  limited 

Shelled  corn,  0.9  lb. 

Clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  2.1  lbs.   .  .  . 

60 

0.32 

288 

655 

The  lambs  given  a  full  feed  of  corn  consumed  an  average  ration  of 
1.3  lbs.  shelled  corn  and  1.4  lbs.  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  and  gained  0.32 
lb.  per  head  daily,  requiring  400  lbs.  shelled  corn  and  436  lbs.  hay  per 
100  lbs.  gain.    The  lambs  getting  the  limited  corn  allowance  ate  0.9 

336 


FEEDS  FOR  SHEEP 


337 


lb.  corn  and  2.1  lbs.  hay  per  head  daily  and  required  655  lbs.  of  hay 
and  only  288  lbs.  of  corn  for  100  lbs.  of  gain.  From  these  averages, 
the  feeder  may  readily  calculate  the  cost  and  possible  profits  of  fat- 
tening lambs  under  reasonably  favorable  conditions,  and  when  the 
fattening  period  is  not  too  extended. 

Hints  on  feeding-  corn. — Being  low  in  protein,  corn  should  be  sup- 
plemented with  some  kind  of  legume  hay,  or  if  this  is  not  available 


il/i#i«Nr  1 

1    A^^HHpP^E^R 

j^JgmgKK/M 

Fig.  94.     Sheep  on  Western  Range  Grazed  under  the  "Mass" 

Method 
From  such  grazing  lands  as  these  come  the  western  lambs  fattened  in  feed 
lots  in  the  western  states,  in  the  corn  belt,  and  eastward.      (From  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.) 


then  with  some  protein-rich  concentrate,  such  as  linseed  or  cottonseed 
meal,  when  fed  to  fattening  sheep  or  lambs.  In  each  of  7  trials  at 
various  stations  corn  and  timothy  or  prairie  hay  was  fed  to  one  lot  of 
lambs  and  corn  and  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  to  another.  On  the  average, 
the  lambs  fed  the  legume  hay  gained  0.32  lb.  per  head  daily,  while 
those  fed  the  unbalanced  ration  of  corn  and  timothy  or  prairie  hay 
gained  only  0.19  lb.  and  required  46  per  ct.  more  grain  and  15  per  ct. 
more  hay  per  100  lbs.  gain.  In  4  other  trials,  corn  and  timothy  hay 
were  fed  to  one  lot  of  lambs,  while  another  received  these  feeds  and  0.2 


338 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


lb.  of  linseed  or  cottonseed  meal  per  head  daily.  Balancing  the  ration 
increased  the  gains  over  30  per  ct.  and  saved  over  11  per  ct.  of  the  con- 
centrates and  25  per  ct.  of  the  hay  required  for  each  100  lbs.  gain. 

Trials  at  the  lowa^  and  Illinois-  Stations  show  that  it  rarely  pays 
to  grind  corn  for  fattening  lambs,  except  perhaps  where  they  are 
already  fairly  fat  and  it  is  desired  to  continue  feeding  them  for  some 
time.  Shelled  corn  is  most  commonly  fed  to  sheep  but  ear  corn  and 
broken  ear  corn  are  satisfactory.     Excellent  results  are  secured  when 


Fig.  95.    Sheep  on  Eange  Grazed  under  the  "Open"  Method 

When  sheep  are  grazed  under  this  improved  system  more  can  be  carried  on 
a  given  area  than  under  the  "mass"  method.  (From  U.  S.  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture.) 


lambs  are  fed  ear  corn  at  first,  changed  to  broken  ear  corn  as  the  feed- 
ing progresses,  and  finished  on  shelled  corn  or  coarsely  ground  corn ; 
i.  e.,  increasing  the  preparation  as  the  lambs  fatten. 

The  other  cereals. — Barley,  wheat,  and  the  grain  sorghums  are  all 
relatively  low  in  protein  and  therefore,  like  corn,  should  be  bal- 
anced with  legume  hay  or  some  protein-rich  concentrate.  Wheat  and 
bald  barley  should  be, crushed  or  rolled  for  sheep,  but  there  is  not 

1  Evvard,   information  to  the  authors. 

2  Coffey,  information  to  the  authors. 


FEEDS  FOR  SHEEP  339 

enough  gain  from  grinding  the  other  grains  to  pay  for  the  expense. 

Barley  is  extensively  used  for  fattening  sheep  and  lambs  thruout 
the  western  range  district,  where  but  little  corn  is  grown.  Trials  at 
the  western  stations  show  that  with  alfalfa  hay  for  roughage,  lambs 
fed  good  heavy  Scotch  or  brewing  barley  make  nearly  as  large  gains 
as  those  fed  corn,  and  require  but  5  per  ct.  more  grain  and  10  per  ct. 
more  hay  for  100  lbs.  gain. 

Wheat  is  rarely  fed  to  sheep  unless  off  grade  or  low  in  price.  Grain 
of  good  quality  is  slightly  superior  to  barley  and  practically  equal  to 
corn  for  fattening  sheep. 

The  value  of  wheat  screenings  varies  widely,  heavy  screenings  being 
equal  to  wheat,  while  the  light,  chaft'y  grades  are  more  like  a  rough- 
age than  a  concentrate.  Successful  feeders  wisely  use  screenings  of 
low  grade  in  getting  the  lambs  on  feed  and  as  fattening  advances 
change  to  the  heavier  screenings. 

Oats  are  bulky  and,  being  well  liked  by  sheep,  are  widely  used  in 
starting  sheep  on  grain  at  the  beginning  of  the  fattening  period. 
They  are  also  excellent  for  the  breeding  flock.  Owing  to  their  usual 
high  price  and  the  fact  that  they  induce  growth  rather  than  fatten- 
ing, it  is  rarely  economical  to  feed  much  oats  to  fattening  sheep. 
Trials  at  the  Indiana  Station^  show  that  after  lambs  are  on  full  feed 
corn  as  the  only  grain  is  as  satisfactory  as  a  mixture  of  corn  and  oats. 
At  the  iMontana  Station*  lambs  fed  clover  hay  and  oats  required  6 
l)er  ct.  more  grain  and  5  per  ct.  more  hay  than  those  fed  barley  and 
clover  hay,  and  at  the  South  Dakota  Station^  lambs  fed  on  oats  and 
mixed  hay  required  16  per  ct.  more  grain  and  9  per  ct.  more  hay  per 
100  lbs.  gain  than  others  fed  corn  and  clover  hay. 

Emmer  is  an  important  grain  for  sheep  and  lambs  in  the  northern 
plains  states.  AVhen  used  as  the  only  grain,  it  is  worth  but  three- 
fourths  as  much  as  corn  per  100  lbs.,  tho  its  value  is  somewhat  higher 
when  fed  with  barley  or  corn, 

Kafir  and  milo,  of  increasing  importance  in  the  southern  plains 
region,  are  worth  slightly  less  than  barley  for  sheep  feeding. 

Miscellaneous  carbonaceous  concentrates. — Dried  beet  pulp  has 
proved  equal  to  corn  for  growing  or  fattening  lambs,  when  fed  as 
part  of  the  concentrate  allowance.  Beet  molasses  is  sometifhes  fed 
to  sheep  in  the  vicinity  of  beet-sugar  factories  in  the  AVest.  In  some 
cases  no  other  concentrate  is  fed,  and  in  others  wet  beet  pulp  and  a 
little  cottonseed  cake  are  added  to  the  ration.  To  avoid  smearing 
the  wool,  the  molasses  is  preferably  mixed  thoroly  with  cut  hay  or 
straw. 

3  Skinner  and  King,  Ind.  Buls.   168,  179;   information  to  the  authors. 

4  Linfield,  Mont.  Buls.  47,  50.  s  s.  D.  Bui.  86. 


340  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Linseed  and  cottonseed  meal. — These  protein-rich  concentrates 
are  the  supplements  most  commonly  used  with  sheep  for  balancing 
rations  low  in  protein.  In  a  trial  at  the  Wisconsin  Station^  the 
value  of  the'se  supplements  for  lambs  was  compared  when  added  to  a 
ration  of  shelled  corn,  corn  silage,  and  legume  hay,  a  ration  other- 
wise low  in  protein.  In  addition  to  these  feeds,  one  lot  of  40  lambs 
was  fed  0.21  lb.  of  linseed  meal  per  head  daily,  and  another  lot  0.16 
lb.  of  choice  cottonseed  meal,  which  supplied  the  same  amount  of  di- 
gestible protein  as  the  larger  amount  of  linseed  meal.  The  lambs  in 
both  lots  gained  0.37  lb.  per  head  daily,  but  the  gains  of  those  fed 
cottonseed  meal  were  slightly  cheaper,  chiefly  because  less  cottonseed 
meal  than  linseed  meal  was  required  to  balance  the  ration.  Lambs 
should  not  receive  .more  than  half  a  pound  of  linseed  or  cottonseed 
meal  per  head  daily,  and  one-eightli  or  one-fourth  pound  in  com- 
bination with  other  concentrates  will  usually  provide  a  well-balanced 
ration.  Linseed  cake  of  pea  size  is  better  relished  by  sheep  than  the 
finely  ground  meal. 

Minor  protein-rich  concentrates. — Field  peas  and  soybeans  are 
usually  too  expensive  to  form  the  entire  concentrate  allowance  for 
fattening  lambs,  but  may  be  used  with  corn  or  other  grain.  Field 
peas  produce  firm  flesh  and  fed  in  combination  with  such  feeds  as 
corn,  oats,  and  bran  are  excellent  in  fitting  sheep  for  shows. 

Wheat  bran  should  form  no  large  part  of  the  concentrate  allow- 
ance for  fattening  sheep,  for,  like  oats,  it  induces  growth  rather  than 
fattening  and  is  too  bulky.  When  lambs  are  being  started  on  feed, 
bran  is  useful  for  mixing  with  corn  and  other  heavy  concentrates  to 
prevent  digestive  troubles.  It  is  a  most  valuable  feed  for  breeding 
ewes. 

Dried  distillers'  grains,  dried  brewers'  grains,  and  gluten  feed, 
tho  not  commonly  fed  to  sheep  in  this  country,  have  given  good  re- 
sults in  Europe. 

II,    Roughages  for  Sheep 

Legume  hay. — The  legumes  furnish  by  far  the  best  roughages  for 
sheep — in  the  East  clover  and  alfalfa  hay,  thruout  the  West  alfalfa 
with  clover  and  field  peas  in  certain  sections,  and  in  the  South  the 
eowpea,  beggarweed,  and  other  plants.  It  is  more  important  for 
sheep  than  for  cattle  that  the  hay  be  fine-stemmed  and  leafy. 

The  superiority  of  legume  hay  over  carbonaceous  hay  for  sheep 
is  shown  in  the  following  summary  of  5  trials  at  4  different  stations, 
in  which  rations  of  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  with  corn  as  the  sole  con- 

6  Morrison  and  Kleinheinz,  unpublished  data. 


FEEDS  FOR  SHEEP 


341 


centrate  have  been  compared  with  rations  of  timothy  or  prairie  hay 
and  corn  and  cotton-  or  linseed  meal,  which  were  equally  well  bal- 
anced so  far  as  the  amount  of  protein  was  concerned. 

Legume  hay  vs.  carbonaceous  hay  for  fattening  lamhs 


Average   ration 

Legume  hay 

Clover  or  alfalfa  hav,  1.5  lbs. 

Initial 

Daily 
gain 
Lbs. 

Feed  for 
Concen- 
trates 
Lbs. 

100 

lbs.  gain 

Hay 
Lbs. 

Corn,  1.3  lbs 

63 

0.32 

388 

455 

Carbonaceous  hay 

Timotliv  or  prairie  hav,   1.0 

lb. 

Corn,  1.0  lb. 

Cotton-  or  linseed  meal,  0.2  lb.   . . 

63 

0.24 

505 

422 

Fig.  96.    Fattening  Lambs  in  a  Western  Feed  Lot 

In  the  western  states  no  shelter  except  a  windbreak  is  commonly  provided 
for  fattening  lambs.  In  the  corn  belt  and  eastward  shelter  is  required  to  pro- 
tect the  lambs  from  winter  storms.     (From  Wallace's  Farmer.) 

Tho  the  lambs  fed  timothy  or  prairie  hay  received  a  well-balanced 
ration,  those  on  clover  or  alfalfa  made  much  larger  gains  and  re- 
quired less  feed  per  100  lbs.  gain. 

Fattening  lambs  given  all  the  corn  and  legume  hay  they  will  eat 
consume  enough  of  the  protein-rich  hay,  even  toward  the  end  of  the 
fattening  period  when  on  a  full  feed  of  grain,  to  balance  the  ration 


342  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

quite  well.  Indeed,  the  data  for  10  trials  at  various  stations  show 
that  adding  linseed  or  cottonseed  meal  to  a  ration  of  corn  and 
legume  hay  increased  the  average  daily  gain  only  0.01  lb.  and  did  not 
lessen  the  amount  of  feed  required  for  100  lbs.  gain. 

Legume  hays  compared. — Early-cut  red  clover  hay  is  one  of  the 
best  roughages  for  sheep,  both  for  fattening  animals  and  for  the 
breeding  flock.  Alfalfa  hay  has  about  the  same  value  as  clover,  ex- 
cept that,  being  richer  in  protein,  less  is  needed  to  balance  a  ration 
otherwise  low  in  this  nutrient. 

Cowpea  hay  gives  good  results  with  sheep,  tho  somewhat  less  val- 
uable than  alfalfa  hay.  Siveet  clover  hay  is  a  satisfactory  roughage 
for  sheep,  but  is  inferior  to  alfalfa  hay.  In  certain  sections  of  the 
West  large  numbers  of  lambs  are  fattened  by  grazing  on  field  peas, 
usually  sown  with  a  small  quantity  of  oats  or  barley  to  support  the 
vines.  The  lambs  are  turned  in  the  fields  when  most  of  the  peas  have 
matured  and  are  fattened  in  70  to  120  days,  commonly  without  other 
feed.  Sometimes  the  peas  are  cut,  stacked,  and  fed  to  the  lambs  in 
yards. 

Timothy  and  other  carbonaceous  hay. — Timothy  hay  is  unsatis- 
factory for  sheep,  being  both  unpalatable  and  constipating.  The  dry 
heads  of  this  grass  work  into  the  wool,  irritating  the  skin,  lowering 
the  value  of  the  wool  and  making  shearing  difficult.  As  has  been 
shown  before,  even  when  a  nitrogenous  supplement  is  added  to  tim- 
othy hay  and  corn,  the  ration  is  still  inferior  to  one  of  legume  hay 
and  corn.  Marsh  hay  is  too  coarse  and  woody  for  sheep,  and  millet 
hay  is  also  unsatisfactory.  Bluegrass  hay  and  bright  oat  straw  are 
preferable  to  any  of  these.  Western  prairie  hay,  tho  more  palatable 
than  timothy,  is  much  inferior  to  alfalfa.  Sorghum  hay  ranks  with 
corn  stover,  its  value  depending  on  its  fineness. 

Corn  stover  and  corn  fodder ;  straw. — Next  in  value  to  hay  from 
the  legumes  come  the  dried  leaves  of  the  corn  plant.  For  sheep  feed- 
ing, corn  should  be  cut  early  and  cured  in  well-made  shocks.  The 
sheep  will  eat  a  little  more  of  the  stalks  if  shredded,  but  cutting  does 
not  induce  them  to  consume  any  of  the  coarser  parts.  Neither  corn 
stover  nor  straw  should  be  fed  as  the  only  roughage,  tho  some  may 
often  be  utilized  with  profit  when  given  with  other  more  palatable 
roughage,  such  as  legume  hay  and  corn  silage.  In  a  trial  at  the  Ok- 
lahoma Station ''  lambs  fed  0.8  lb.  corji  stover,  0.7  lb.  alfalfa  hay,  1.2 
lbs.  corn,  and  0.4  lb.  cottonseed  meal  per  head  daily,  made  nearly  as 
large  gains  as  others  fed  1.5  lbs.  alfalfa  hay  and  1.6  lbs.  corn,  and 
required  but  little  more  concentrates  for  100  lbs.  gain. 

7  McDonald  and  Malone,  Okla.  Bui.  78. 


FEEDS  FOR  SHEEP  343 

III.     Succulent  Feeds 

Roots. — Roots,  silage,  pasture  and  other  succulent  feeds  are  ex- 
ceedingly beneficial  to  the  flock  because  of  their  tonic  and  regulative 
effect.  Roots  are  universally  fed  in  large  amounts  to  sheep  in  Great 
Britain,  famed  for  mutton  of  the  highest  quality.  While  even  lambs 
are  sometimes  there  fed  over  20  lbs.  of  roots  per  head  daily,  in  this 
country  it  is  not  ordinarily  profitable  to  feed  over  4  or  5  lbs.,  and 
even  half  this  much,  preferably  pulped  or  sliced,  will  furnish  the 
needed  succulence  in  the  ration. 

Averaging  the  results  for  5  trials  in  which  roots  have  been  added 
to  a  well-balanced  ration  of  grain  and  alfalfa,  clover,  or  mixed  clover 
and  timothy  hay,  we  find  that  the  lambs  fed  roots  (3.7  lbs.  per  head 
daily)  gained  22  per  ct.  more  than  those  fed  no  roots.  In  these 
trials  1  ton  of  roots  replaced  174  lbs.  of  grain  and  355  lbs.  of  hay. 

At  the  Iowa  Station  ^  sugar  beets  ranked  first  in  amount  and 
economy  of  gain,  with  mangels  second,  and  turnips  third.  Since 
mangels  and  sugar  beets  when  fed  to  sheep  tend  to  produce  calculi, 
or  stones,  in  the  kidneys  or  bladder,  which  are  dangerous  in  the  case 
of  rams  and  wethers,  these  roots  should  not  be  fed  to  males  for 
long  periods.  In  the  Iowa  trials  rams  died  after  being  fed,  on 
rations  containing  4.4  lbs.  of  sugar  beets  or  mangels  for  5  to  6 
months.     Ewes  are  not  so  afi:'ected. 

Corn  silage. — Trials  by  American  stations  show  that  in  most 
parts  of  this  country  corn  silage  is  as  satisfactory  and  usually  a 
much  more  economical  succulent  feed  than  roots.  In  2  trials  lambs 
fed  corn  silage,  hay,  and  concentrates  made  as  large  gains  as  others  fed 
roots,  hay,  and  concentrates ;  in  1  trial,  larger  gains ;  and  in  4  trials, 
somewhat  smaller  gains.  On  the  average  the  lambs  fed  roots  gained 
only  0.02  lb.  more  per  head  daily  than  those  fed  com  silage.  Due 
to  the  more  watery  nature  of  the  roots,  1,000  lbs.  of  silage  replaced 
1,449  lbs.  of  roots. 

The  value  of  corn  silage  for  fattening  lambs  is  well  shown  in  the 
following  table,  which  summarizes  7  trials  in  which  it  was  added  to 
the  already  excellent  ration  of  clover  hay  and  shelled  corn : 

Value  of  corn  silage  when  added  to  well-halanced  ration 

Initial  Daily  Feed  for   100   lbs.   gain 

Average  ration  -weight  gain  Corn  Hay  Silage 

Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Lot  I 

Corn  silage,  1.4  lbs. 
Clover  hay,  0.9  lb. 

Shelled  corn,  1.2  lbs 62  0.326  360  284  425 

Lot  II 

Clover  hav,  1.5  lbs. 

Shelled  corn,  1.3  lbs 62  0.323  394  471 

8  Kennedy,  Bobbins  and  Kildee,  Iowa  Hiil    110. 


344  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

On  the  average,  the  lambs  fed  silage  ate  0.6  lb.  less  hay  and  0.1 
lb.  less  corn  daily,  yet  gained  slightly  more  than  those  fed  clover 
hay  and  shelled  corn.  Adding  silage  to  a  ration  of  clover  hay  and 
corn  does  not,  however,  always  result  in  increased  gain,  for  in  4 
of  these  trials  the  lambs  fed  no  silage  made  the  larger  gains.  Its 
advantage  lies  rather  in  the  saving  of  corn  and  hay  required  for 
100  lbs.  of  gain.  In  these  trials  100  lbs.  of  corn  silage  saved  8.0 
lbs.  of  corn  and  44.0  lbs.  of  clover  hay.  With  corn  at  a  cent  a 
pound  and  clover  hay  at  $10.00  per  ton,  the  silage  fed  had  a  value 
of  $6.00  per  ton,  or  nearly  twice  the  cost  of  production  on  most 
farms.  Besides  cheapening  the  gains,  in  these  trials  the  addition 
of  silage  to  the  ration  usually  resulted  in  higher  finish  and  con- 
sequently in  a  greater  selling  price.  Corn  silage  of  good  quality  is 
as  valuable  for  the  breeding  flock  as  for  sheep  being  fattened  for 
market. 

Hints  on  feeding  silage.— Trials  at  the  Indiana  Station"  show 
that  lambs  fed  corn  silage  as  the  sole  roughage  make  considerably 
smaller  gains  than  where  they  are  fed  legume  hay  in  addition,  and 
more  care  is  required  to  prevent  their  going  "off  feed."  In  still 
other  trials  ^°  it  was  found  best  to  allow  the  lambs  all  the  silage 
they  will  eat,  both  morning  and  night,  with  free  access  to  legume 
hay,  rather  than  limiting  the  amount  of  silage  fed. 

It  has  already  been  shown  in  this  chapter  that  adding  a  protein- 
rich  concentrate,  such  as  cottonseed  or  linseed  meal,  to  the  already 
well-balanced  ration  of  corn  and  legume  hay  is  not  ordinarily  profit- 
able. When  corn  silage  is  added  to  a  ration  of  corn  and  legume  hay, 
all  being  fed  in  unlimited  allowance,  the  lambs  will  eat  less  of  the 
protein-rich  hay,  the  ration  thus  becoming  somewhat  unbalanced. 
In  trials  at  the  Indiana  Station  "  feeding  1  part  of  cottonseed  meal 
to  7  parts  of  shelled  corn  increased  the  daily  gains  0.02  lb.  and 
slightly  decreased  the  amount  of  feed  required  for  100  lbs.  gain. 
Feeding  more  cottonseed  meal  than  this  did  not  increase  the  gains. 
In  some  cases  more  profit  was  made  when  no  cottonseed  meal  was 
fed,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  was  considerably  higher  in  price  than 
corn.  Whether  to  add  a  protein-rich  concentrate  to  a  ration  of  corn, 
corn  silage,  and  legume  hay  must  be  determined  by  each  feeder  for 
himself,  after  taking  into  consideration  the  prices  of  feeds,  the  value 
of  the  manure,  and  the  time  the  animals  should  be  ready  for  the 
market. 

9  Skinner  and  King,  Ind.  Buls.  168,  179. 

10  Coffey,  111.  Sta.,  information  to  the  authors;  Skinner  and  King,  Ind.  Bui. 
168. 

11  Skinner  and  King,  Ind.  Buls.   162,  168,   179;   information  to  the  authors. 


FEEDS  FOR  SHEEP  345 

The  numerous  instances  in  which  sheep  of  all  classes  have  died  from 
eating  moldy  or  decayed  silage  show  that  greater  care  is  necessary  in 
administering  this  feed  to  sheep  than  to  cattle.  As  sour  silage  is  apt 
to  cause  colic  and  scouring,  silage  for  sheep  should  be  made  from  well- 
matured  corn. 

Silage  other  than  corn. — Sorghum  silage  from  plants  sufficiently 
matured  to  produce  silage  low  in  acidity  is  satisfactory  for  sheep, 
and  may  be  used  in  the  same  manner  as  corn  silage.  Where  the  field 
pea  flourishes,  the  whole  plant  may  be  profitably  ensiled  for  sheep 
fattening.  In  the  vicinity  of  pea  canneries,  fattening  sheep  and 
lambs  on  ensiled  pea  vines  and  pods  is  an  important  industry,  espe- 
cially in  Wisconsin.  Some  dry  roughage,  such  as  corn  stover  or  hay, 
is  supplied  in  addition  to  the  silage,  and  grain  or  screenings  are  fed, 
particularly  during  the  latter  part  of  the  fattening  period. 

Wet  beet  pulp. — This  by-product  is  extensively  fed  to  fattening 
sheep  in  the  vicinity  of  the  beet-sugar  factories  in  the  western  states. 
Sheep  are  commonly  given  all  the  pulp  they  will  eat,  along  with 
alfalfa  hay,  which  admirably  supplements  the  pulp,  low  both  in  pro- 
tein and  lime.  Feeding  a  limited  allowance  of  corn,  barley,  or  other 
grain  in  addition,  is  usually  advisable.  At  the  Colorado  Station,^'-  1 
ton  of  wet  beet  pulp  was  equal  to  200  lbs.  of  corn  for  fattening  sheep. 
Pulp  is  commonly  fed  to  old  ewes  and  wethers,  but  seems  too  bulky 
for  the  best  results  with  lambs.  It  is  especially  suited  to  old  animals 
with  poor  teeth. ^^ 

Pastures  for  sheep. — As  sheep  relish  weeds  and  browse  eagerly  on 
sprouts  and  brush  refused  by  other  stock,  they  are  helpful  in  cleaning 
up  the  farm,  especially  such  by-places  as  lanes  and  fence  corners. 
Of  the  permanent  pastures,  bluegrass  is  the  most  common  in  the 
upper  ]\rississippi  valley  and  eastward.  Farther  south  red  top  is 
prominent,  and  in  the  southern  states  Bermuda  grass.  In  the  West 
the  native  grasses,  especially  the  grama  species,  furnish  much  of  the 
grazing  on  the  ranges,  tho  on  mountain  ranges  the  food  is  often  mostly 
herbs  and  the  leaves  and  twigs  of  shrubs.^* 

The  clovers  furnish  valuable  pasture,  but  great  care  is  necessary 
to  prevent  bloat  when  sheep  are  grazed  on  them.  Alfalfa  is  especially 
liable  to  cause  bloat  and  can  be  recommended  as  a  pasture  plant  for 
but  few  sections,  altho  some  skillful  flockmasters  suffer  little  loss. 
In  some  parts  of  the  West  alfalfa  is  utilized  for  winter  grazing,  as  it 
is  then  so  lacking  in  succulence  that  danger  from  bloat  is  practically 
absent.  In  the  humid  regions  care  is  always  necessary  to  prevent 
trouble  from  stomach  worms  when  permanent  pastures  are  used. 

12  Colo.  Bui.  76. 

13  Morton,  Colo.  Sta.,  information  to  the  authors. 
"Beattie,  Wash.  Bui.  113. 


346  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Experienced  shepherds  commonly  grow  annual  crops  to  supplement 
permanent  pastures  when  they  are  short.  The  earliest  grazing  is 
usually  furnished  by  the  cereals,  the  best  of  which,  according  to 
Shaw,^^  is  winter  rye.  Rye  is  also  grown  for  fall  grazing  and  in 
sections  with  moderate  winters  winter  wheat  furnishes  feed  during 
the  colder  mouths.  The  sorghums  are  useful  in  the  plains  region, 
altho  not  especially  relished  by  sheep.  Where  they  flourish,  field 
peas,  vetches,  cowpeas,  and  crimson  and  Japan  clover  all  furnish  ex- 
cellent pasture.  Rape  is  the  most  widely  useful  member  of  the  mus- 
tard family,  which  furnishes  several  other  grazing  crops.  At  the 
Wisconsin  Station,^®  rape  proved  much  superior  to  bluegrass  pasture 
for  lambs.  The  best  results  are  secured  when  rape  and  bluegrass 
are  used  in  combination.  In  the  mild  climate  of  the  Pacific  coast 
where  it  endures  the  winter,  kale  provides  excellent  spring  feed.  In 
the  fall  kohlrabi  and  cabbage  may  be  useful.  Both  rutabagas  and 
turnips  are  widely  grown  in  Britain  for  grazing.  Shaw  suggests 
these  crops  for  winter  grazing  in  the  southern  states. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  About  how  large  gains  should  good  lambs  make  and  about  how  much  feed 
will  they  eat  per  100  lbs.  of  gain  (a)  when  fed  an  unlimited  allowance  of  corn 
and  legume  hay;    (b)   when  the  corn  allowance  is  limited? 

2.  What  is  the  value  for  sheep  of  barley,  wheat,  wheat  screenings,  oats, 
emmer,  and  kafir  compared  with  corn? 

3.  State  the  value  and  uses  for  sheep  of  at  least  four  protein-rich  concen- 
trates. 

4.  Discuss  the  importance  of  legume  hay  for  fattening  lambs. 

5.  Compare  the  value  of  four  kinds  of  legume  hay  for  sheep. 

6.  To  what  extent  would  you  use  carbonaceous  roughages  for  sheep? 

7.  In  your  own  section  would  you  use  roots  or  silage  for  sheep?     Why? 

8.  DiScuss  the  use  of  corn  silage  for  sheep. 

9.  What  other  kinds  of  silage  are  useful  for  sheep? 

10.  What  is  the  value  of  wet  beet  pulp  for  sheep  fattening? 

11.  What  pasture  crops  are  suitable  for  sheep  in  your  district?  State  the 
precautions  you  would  take  in  grazing  sheep  on  clover. 

12.  Using  local  prices  for  feeds,  compute  the  ration  you  would  recommend  for 
fattening  Iambs  weighing  75  lbs.  per  head.  Follow  the  method  described  in 
Chapter  VIII  and  use  the  Modified  Wolff -Lehmann  Standards. 

15  Management  and  Feeding  of  Sheep,  p.  171. 

16  Craig,  Wis.  Rpt.  1897. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  SWINE 
I.  General  Problems  in  Swine  Husbandry 

The  pig-  excels  all  other  farm  animals  in  the  economy  with  which 
he  converts  feed  into  edible  flesh,  requiring  but  4  to  5  lbs.  of  dry- 
matter  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain,  while  fattening  cattle  require 
from  10  to  12  lbs.  The  pig  yields  from  75  to  80  per  ct.  of  his  live 
weight  as  dressed  carcass;  the  steer  only  55  to  65  per  ct.  Moreover, 
pigs  will  profitably  utilize  many  by-products  of  the  farm  otherwise 
lost,  such  as  dairy  by-products  and  kitchen  and  garden  waste,  as  well 
as  grains  that  cannot  otherwise  be  disposed  of  profitably.  No  other 
line  of  stock  farming  can  so  quickly  be  brought  to  profitable  produc- 
tion with  limited  capital  invested  in  stock  and  e(iuipment  as  can  the 
making  of  meat  from  the  pig.  Due  to  this  efficiency  in  producing 
human  food,  pigs  steadily  increase  in  importance  as  population  becomes 
more  dense. 

Practically  every  farmer  should  raise  and  fatten  pigs,  for  family 
consumption  if  not  for  market,  in  order  to  save  feed  that  would  other- 
wise be  wasted.  In  many  cases  he  should  not  only  fatten  his  pigs 
but  also  slaughter  them  and  market  the  cured  products,  obtaining 
increased  profits  even  tho  the  undertaking  be  a  small  one. 

Rate  and  economy  of  gains  by  pigs. — The  economy  with  which 
pigs  of  different  weights  convert  feed  into  meat  is  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table,  summarizing  the  data  from  over  500  feeding  trials  with  more 
than  2,200  pigs  at  many  American  experiment  stations.  In  this  table 
6  lbs.  of  skim  milk  or  12  lbs.  of  whey  is  rated  as  equal  to  1  lb.  of  con- 
centrates. 


Relation  of  we 

ight  of  pigs  to  feed 

consumed  and  rate  of 

gain 

Wt.  of  pigs 

Actual 
av.  wt. 

No.  of 

animals 

fed 

Av.  feed 
eaten  pet- 
day 

Feed  eaten  daily 
per  100  lbs. 
live  weight 

Av.  gain 
per  day 

Feed  for 
100  lbs.  gain 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

L5  to     50 

38 

174 

2.2 

6.0 

0.8 

293 

50  to  100 

78 

417 

3.4 

4.3 

0.8 

400 

100  to  150 

128 

495 

4.8 

3.8 

1.1 

437 

150  to  200 

174 

489 

5.9 

3.5 

1.2 

482 

200  to  250 

226 

300 

6.6 

2.9 

1.3 

498 

250  to  300 

271 

223 

7.4 

2.7 

1.5 

511 

300  to  350 

320 

105 

7.5 

2.4 

1.4 

535 

347 


348  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

This  table  points  out  several  facts  of  great  importance  to  the  pork 
producer.  While  the  amount  of  feed  eaten  per  head  daily  increases 
as  the  pigs  grow  larger,  the  amount  consumed  per  100  lbs.  live  weight 
decreases  rapidly.  In  other  words,  young  pigs  have  a  greater  capacity 
for  consuming  feed  than  older  ones  per  100  lbs.  live  weight.  The 
average  gain  per  day  started  at  0.8  lb.  for  pigs  weighing  under  50  lbs. 
and  gradually  increased  until  those  weighing  250  to  300  lbs.  showed 
a  daily  gain  of  1.5  lbs.  The  last  column,  perhaps  the  most  important, 
shows  that  as  the  pigs  grow  older,  they  require  more  and  more  feed 
for  100  lbs.  gain,  the  gains  thus  constantly  becoming  more  expensive. 
The  greater  production  from  the  younger  pigs  is  due  chiefly  to  the 
fact  that  they  consume  more  feed  per  100  lbs.  live  weight  and  conse- 
quently have  a  greater  surplus  from  which  to  make  gain  after  their 
bodies  are  maintained.  Also,  100  lbs.  of  gain  made  by  150-lb.  pigs 
has  somewhat  less  food  value  than  the  same  amount  made  by  250-lb. 
pigs,  for  the  gain  of  the  younger  pigs  contains  more  water  and  less 
fat.  Due  to  the  increased  cost  of  the  gains  as  they  mature,  most  pigs 
are  now  marketed  when  weighing  only  250  lbs.  or  less. 

Nutrient  requirements  of  swine. — Since  pigs  are  commonly  fattened 
for  market  before  maturity,  they  are  growing  rapidly  as  well  as  storing 
fat  in  their  bodies.  Consequently  their  ration  should  supply  ample 
protein  and  mineral  matter  for  normal  growth.  The  requirements  of 
pigs  of  various  ages,  as  shown  in  studies  by  the  junior  author  of  the 
numerous  trials  at  American  experiment  stations,  are  given  in  the 
Modified  Wolft'-Lehmann  standards. 

We  have  seen  in  Chapter  IV  that  since  horses,  cattle  and  sheep  eat 
large  quantities  of  hay,  which  is  relatively  rich  in  calcium  (lime), 
their  rations  ordinarily  contain  plenty  of  this  mineral  nutrient.  Pigs, 
however,  are  not  fitted  to  consume  much  roughage  and  are  fed  chiefly 
on  the  cereal  grains,  which  are  low  in  calcium.  There  is,  therefore, 
much  more  danger  that  their  rations  may  not  contain  sufficient  calcium 
for  thrifty  growth  of  the  skeleton  and  body  tissues.  Pigs  on  such  pas- 
ture as  alfalfa,  clover,  or  rape,  and  those  fed  skim  milk  or  tankage  as 
supplements  to  corn  or  other  grains,  will  ordinarily  receive  sufficient 
calcium.  When  fed  in  the  dry  lot  on  cereal  grains  and  their  by- 
products, they  should  be  given  additional  calcium  in  the  form  of  ground 
limestone,  bone  ash,  or  ground  rock  phosphate.  An  abundant  supply 
of  calcium  is  especially  necessary  for  young  pigs  and  brood  sows. 
When  rations  are  so  balanced  that  they  furnish  sufficient  protein  to 
meet  the  feeding  standards,  they  will  also  supply  enough  phosphorus 
for  rapid  growth.  This  is  due  to  the  fact,  brought  out  in  Chapter  V, 
that  the  common  feeds  which  are  rich  in  protein  are  also  high  in 
phosphorus. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  SWINE 


349 


Grinding  or  soaking  grain.— To  find  whether  it  was  profitable  to 
prrind  corn  for  fattening  pigs,  the  senior  author,  at  first  alone  and 
later  with  Otis,  conducted  18  trials  at  the  Wisconsin  Station^  during 
10  consecutive  winters  with  pigs  averaging  175  lbs.  in  weight  at  the 
beginning  of  the  trials.  In  each  trial  one  lot  was  fed  a  ration  of  two- 
thirds  3'ear-old  shelled  dent  corn  and  one-third  wheat  middlings,  and 


Fig.  97. — The  Scoop  Shovel  Method  of  Preparing  Corn  for  Pigs 

For  pigs  under  1.50  lbs.  in  weight,  shelling  or  grinding  corn  does  not  increase 
its  value.  For  older  pigs  the  saving  by  grinding  is  only  4  to  6  per  ct.  (From 
Iowa  Station.) 


the  other  lot  wheat  middlings  and  the  same  corn  ground  to  meal.  In 
11  of  the  trials  grinding  the  corn  saved  from  2.5  to  18.5  per  ct.  in  the 
amount  of  feed  needed  for  100  lbs.  gain,  while  in  the  other  7  trials 
shelled  corn  gave  the  best  results.  On  the  average,  it  required  501 
lbs.  of  whole  corn  and  wheat  middlings  and  only  471  lbs.  of  ground 
corn  and  middlings  for  100  lbs.  gain,  a  saving  of  6  per  ct.  This  means 
that  with  corn  worth  50  cents  per  bushel  grinding  saved  3  cents  on 
each  bushel,  allowing  nothing  for  labor  or  expense.  It  was  observed 
that  the  pigs  fed  ground  corn  ate  more  in  a  given  time  and  gained 
faster  than  those  getting  shelled  corn.     This  no  doubt  explains  the 

iWis.  Rpt.  1906. 


350  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

impression  of  many  farmers  that  pigs  do  better  on  ground  than  on 
whole  corn. 

Later  trials  at  the  Indiana  -  and  Iowa  ^  Stations  show  that  until  pigs 
reach  a  weight  of  about  150  lbs.  there  is  no  appreciable  benefit  from 
grinding  com  or  even  shelling  it,  ear  corn  producing  the  cheapest  gains. 
However,  after  pigs  have  reached  this  weight,  they  chew  their  feed 
less  thoroly  and  therefore  usually  make  slightly  more  rapid  gains 
and  require  somewhat  less  feed  per  100  lbs.  gain  if  the  corn  is  either 
ground  or  soaked.  Whether  this  saving,  which  will  average  4  to  6  per 
ct.,  will  cover  the  cost  of  preparation  must  be  decided  by  the  feeder. 

"With  the  small  grains,  such  as  wheat,  barle}^,  oats,  and  the  grain 
sorghums,  more  of  the  grain  passes  thru  the  animal  unmasticated,  and 
therefore  grinding  pays,  even  for  pigs  under  150  lbs.  in  weight.  In 
9  trials  at  5  stations  in  which  pigs  were  fed  whole  or  ground  wheat, 
rye,  oatSj-'barlej^  or  peas,  there  was  an  average  saving  of  12  per  ct. 
by  grinding.  Where  the  grain  can  not  be  conveniently  ground,  it 
should  be  soaked  for  about  12  hours,  but  not  allowed  to  ferment. 

Cooking'  feed. — Early  agricultural  authorities  strongly  advocated 
cooking  feed  for  swine,  but  numerous  trials  at  several  stations  have 
proved  conclusively  that,  instead  of  a  gain  from  cooking,  there  is  in 
nearly  every  case  a  loss.  In  26  trials  in  which  pigs  were  fed  either 
cooked  or  uncooked  grain  (corn,  barley,  rye,  peas,  or  wheat  shorts, 
fed  separatel}^  or  in  combination),  89.4  lbs.  of  uncooked  grain  was  as 
valuable,  on  the  average,  as  100  lbs.  of  the  same  grain  when  cooked, 
a  loss  of  over  10  per  ct.  by  cooking.  Some  few  feeds,  such  as  potatoes 
and  field  beans,  are  improved  by  cooking.  In  winter  slop  should  be 
warmed,  but  not  cooked,  for  pigs  in  cold  quarters. 

Water  required  by  pigs. — Dietrich,'*  who  has  given  the  subject 
careful  study,  concludes  that  the  proper  amount  of  water  for  pigs 
ranges  from  12  lbs.  daily  per  100  lbs.  of  animal  at  weaning  time  down 
to  4  lbs.  per  100  lbs.  live  weight  during  the  fattening  period.  Unless 
pigs  secure  plenty  of  water  in  the  form  of  slop,  they  should  be  supplied 
with  fre.sh  water  in  a  trough  or  by  means  of  an  automatic  waterer. 
Dietrich  holds  that  pigs  do  not  usually  drink  enough  water  in  winter, 
and  should  be  forced  to  take  more  by  giving  it,  warm  if  necessary,  in 
their  slop. 

There  is  generally  no  advantage  in  wetting  feeds,  unless  the  pigs 
will  not  otherwise  drink  enough  water.  When  wheat  meal  is  fed,  it 
forms  a  past}^  gummy  mass  in  the  mouth,  difficult  to  chew  and  swallow ; 
feeding  it  as  a  thin  slop  largely  prevents  this  trouble. 

2  King,  Proc.  Amer.  Soc.  Anim.  Prod.,  1913,  pp.  22-31. 

3  Kennedy  and  Bobbins,  Iowa  Bui.  106. 

4  Swine,  p.  156. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  SWINE 


351 


Self  feeders. — Eward  of  the  Iowa  Station  ^  has  conducted  numerous 
trials  with  self  feeders  for  various  classes  of  swine.  His  results  show 
that  this  method  of  feeding  is  well  adapted  to  the  quick  fattening  of 
well-grown  shotes,  for  fattening  old  sows,  and  for  growing,  fattening 
shotes  where  it  is  desired  to  feed  them  an  unlimited  grain  allowance. 


Fig.  98. — Fattening  Pigs  with  a  Self  Feeder 

Pigs  self-fed  on  corn  and  tankage,  with  or  without  other  supplements,  make 
rapid  and  economical  gains.      (From  Eward,  Iowa  Station.) 

The  self  feeder  should  not  be  used  when  rapid  gains  are  not  wanted, 
for  instance,  where  it  is  desired  to  force  pigs  to  make  the  maximum 
use  of  pasturage  by  limiting  the  grain  allowance.  It  should  not  be 
used  for  pregnant  sows  except  early  in  pregnancy  or  unless  some 
bulky  feed,  of  which  ground  alfalfa  is  the  best  under  corn-belt 
conditions,  is  mixed  with  the  grain.  By  decreasing  or  increasing  the 
proportion  of  corn  the  gilts  or  sows  may  be  kept  in  the  proper 
condition. 

The  large  and  economical  gains  which  may  be  secured  with  growing 
pigs  self-fed  in  dry  lots  on  corn  and  suitable  supplements  are  shown 
in  a  trial  in  which  45-lb.  pigs  were  allowed  access  to  shelled  corn  and 
various  supplements  in  separate  self  feeders  for  162  days.  Salt,  char- 
coal, and  ground  limestone  were  supplied  in  addition.     The  pigs  in 

5  Proc.  Amer.  Soc.  Anim.  Prod.,  1014. 


352  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

one  lot,  consuming  an  average  ration  of  6.0  lbs.  shelled  com,  0.08  lb. 
oats,  0.10  lb.  linseed  meal,  and  0.40  lb.  tankage,  gained  1.6  lbs.  per 
head  daily.  They  reached  an  average  weight  of  316  lbs.  at  248  days 
of  age,  one  of  them  weighing  405  lbs.,  an  unusual  record.  This  lot 
required  417  lbs.  of  concentrates  for  100  lbs.  gain.  Nearly  as  large 
gains  were  made  by  a  second  lot,  fed  shelled  corn,  oats,  and  meat  meal, 
and  by  a  third  lot,  fed  shelled  corn,  oats,  wheat  middlings,  linseed  meal, 
and  meat  meal. 

Evvard  states  that  pigs  allowed  free  access  to  corn  and  supplements, 
such  as  tankage,  linseed  meal,  and  wheat  middlings,  show  a  remarkable 
ability  to  balance  their  own  ration.  At  first  about  75  per  ct.  of  the 
entire  ration  was  corn  and  the  remainder  meat  meal  and  other  supple- 
ments. As  the  pigs  grew  older  they  widened  the  nutritive  ratio  till 
at  the  close  about  99  per  ct.  of  the  feed  eaten  was  corn.  All  lots  ate 
a  larger  proportion  of  oats  during  the  first  few  weeks  than  later,  con- 
suming only  an  insignificant  amount  of  this  bulky  feed  when  they 
became  well  fattened.  When  pigs  are  not  supplied  all  the  corn  they 
will  eat  it  is  inadvisable  to  feed  tankage  in  a  self  feeder,  for  because 
of  hunger  they  will  eat  more  meat  meal  than  is  needed  to  balance 
their  ration. 

Salt  and  correctives  of  mineral  nature. — Tho  pigs  require  less  salt 
than  the  other  farm  animals,  they  should  be  supplied  with  it  regularly. 
In  a  trial  by  Evvard  at  the  Iowa  Station "  pigs  allowed  free  access  to 
salt  made  better  gains  than  those  receiving  no  salt  or  others  getting 
allowances  of  one-sixty-fourth,  one-thirty-second,  or  one-sixteenth 
ounce  per  head  daily.  Salt  may  be  supplied  in  a  trough  or  a  small 
self  feeder.  If  pigs  have  not  had  free  access  to  salt  they  may  at  first 
overeat. 

Pigs,  especially  those  kept  'in  confinement,  often  show  a  strong 
craving  for  seemingly  unnatural  substances — charcoal,  ashes,  mortar, 
soft  coal,  rotten  wood,  soft  brick,  and  other  substances  being  greedily 
devoured  when  offered.  Such  cravings  should  be  satisfied  by  supply- 
ing such  materials  as  charcoal,  air-slaked  lime  or  ground  limestone, 
wood  ashes,  bone  meal  or  ground  rock  phosphate,  and  copperas,  with 
or  without  salt.  A  mixture  of  correctives  may  be  placed  before  the 
pigs  or  they  may  be  offered  in  separate  compartments  of  a  covered 
trough  or  of  a  self  feeder. 

Shelter  and  exercise. — Even  in  the  northern  part  of  the  corn  belt, 
where  the  winters  are  severe,  inexpensive  shelter  is  all  that  is  necessary 
for  swine.  The  req^:iisites  for  healthful  winter  shelter  are  freedom 
from  dampness,  good  ventilation  without  drafts  on  the  animals,  sun- 
light, reasonable  warmth,  and  a  moderate  amount  of  dry  bedding. 

6  Information  to  the  authora. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  SWINE 


353 


The  quarters  should  be  located  on  well-drained  ground  and  should 
be  so  arranged  that  they  may  be  easily  and  thoroly  cleaned  and 
disinfected. 

Swine  may  be  housed  in  a  central  hog  house  having  a  number  of  pens 
or  in  small  movable  "cabins"  or  colony  houses.  Many  use  a  combina- 
tion of  the  two  systems,  for  in  the  northern  states  the  central  house 
is  well  suited  for  winter  shelter  and  spring  farrowing,  while  the  port- 
able houses  are  particularly  useful  for  housing  pigs  on  pasture.     Pigs 


Colony  houses,  which  are  of  several  types,  are  especially  useful  for  housing  pigs 
on  pasture.  Note  the  shade  at  the  rear  of  this  house.  (From  Fuller,  Wisconsin 
Station.) 


wintered  in  colony  houses,  especially  young  ones,  require  considerably 
more  feed  than  those  in  warmer  (|uarters.  This  is  more  or  less  offset 
by  the  low  cost  of  the  cabins  and  by  the  ease  with  which  they  may 
be  shifted  to  prevent  disease  and  parasites  and  to  distribute  the 
droppings  of  the  animals.  In  severe  weather  corn  stalks,  horse 
manure,  or  other  litter  may  be  banked  against  the  sides  of  the  houseg. 
AVith  liberal  bedding,  all  but  very  young  pigs  should  then  be  com- 
fortable. When  litters  come  in  severe  weather  a  lantern  hung  in  the 
cabin  will  usually  furnish  sufficient  warmth. 

For  breeding  stock  and  growing  pigs  ample  exercise  is  of  the  utmost 


354  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

importance.  To  enforce  exercise  the  animals  may  be  fed  at  a  point 
some  distance  from  the  central  house  or  the  colony  houses  where  there 
are  troughs  and  a  feeding  floor.  When  snow  covers  the  ground,  paths 
to  this  place  can  be  broken  out  with  a  snow  plow.  On  the  feeding 
floor,  which  should  be  kept  clean  and  should  be  covered  if  possible, 
shelled  corn  and  whole  oats  may  be  scattered  thinly  to  force  the  sows 
or  pigs  to  pick  up  a  grain  at  a  time.  In  this  way  they  may  be  kept 
out  of  their  beds  and  on  their  feet  for  hours  at  a  time  getting  air 
and  exercise. 

Types  of  swine;  breed  tests. — The  principal  breeds  of  swine  are 
of  two  distinct  types,  the  lard  type,  of  which  the  Poland-China,  Berk- 
shire, Chester-White,  and  Duroc-Jersey  are  the  leading  breeds,  and  the 
bacon  type,  represented  by  the  Tamworth  and  Large  Yorkshire  breeds. 
The  Hampshires,  tho  often  classed  as  bacon  hogs,  really  stand  between 
the  extreme  bacon  type  and  the  lard  type.  Lard  hogs,  which  are  the 
type  commonly  raised  in  the  United  States,  have  compact,  wide,  and 
deep  bodies.  Since  the  hams,  back,  and  shoulders  are  the  most  valu- 
able parts,  the  packer  desires  a  hog  furnishing  a  maximum  of  these 
cuts.  Usually  being  well-fattened,  lard  hogs  yield  a  high  percentage 
of  dressed  carcass.  Formerly  heavy  hogs  were  in  largest  demand, 
but  now  pigs  weighing  250  lbs.  or  less  will  command  the  highest  price, 
if  well  finished. 

The  bacon  pig  is  raised  chiefly  in  Denmark,  Great  Britain,  and 
Canada,  where  corn  is  not  the  main  feed  for  swine.  Pigs  of  the  bacon 
breeds  are  longer  of  body  and  of  leg  than  those  of  the  lard  breeds,  have 
less  thickness  and  depth  of  body,  and  are  lighter  in  the  shoulder,  neck, 
and  jowl.  For  bacon  the  pigs  should  weigh  from  160  to  200  lbs.  and 
carry  but  medium  fat,  which  should  be  uniformly  from  1  to  1.5  inches 
thick  along  the  back. 

Breed  tests  have  been  conducted  at  several  stations  to  determine 
whether  there  is  any  difference  in  the  economy  of  meat  production  by 
the  different  breeds.  There  was  no  consistent  and  uniform  difference 
in  gains  or  economy  of  production,  a  breed  which  ranked  high  in 
some  of  the  tests  being  surpassed  bj''  other  breeds  in  the  rest  of  the 
trials.  The  bacon  breeds  made  as  economical  gains  as  those  of  the 
lard  type.  We  may  conclude  that  there  is  no  best  breed  of  swine  so 
far  as  rate  and  economy  of  gains  are  concerned.  One  should  select 
the  breed  which  seems  best  adapted  to  his  conditions  and  suits  his 
fancy,  and  then  be  sure  to  secure  and  to  maintain  vigorous,  well-bred 
animals  of  that  breed. 

The  brood  sows. — The  most  important  points  in  the  feed  and  care 
of  brood  sows  are:  (1)  to  provide  rations  which  contain  an  abundance 
of  protein  and  mineral  matter,  needed  not  only  for  the  proper  nourish- 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  SWINE 


355, 


raent  of  their  bodies  but  also  for  the  development  of  the  unborn  young ; 
and  (2)  to  see  that  they  have  plenty  of  exercise. 

Where  sows  raise  but  one  litter  of  pigs  a  year,  they  need  little  or  no 
concentrates  in  summer  after  their  litters  are  weaned,  provided  they 
run  on  first  class  pasture,  such  as  alfalfa,  clover,  or  rape.  Enough 
grain  should  be  fed  to  keep  the  sows  in  thrifty  condition,  and  in  any 
event  they  should  get  some  grain  for  several  weeks  before  farrowing. 
On  protein-rich  pasture  the  concentrates  should  be  mostly  carbo- 
naceous in  character,  such  as  corn,  wheat,  barley,  kafir  and  milo,  with 


Colony  Houses  Banked  with  Straw  for  Winter 


Colony  Iiouses  thus  protected  provide  comfortable  winter  quarters  for  all  but 
small  pigs,  even  in  the  northern  states. 


enough  protein-rich  concentrates  to  balance  the  ration.  Where  sows 
raise  two  litters  a  year  they  will  require  more  feed,  due  to  the  added 
draft  on  their  bodies. 

In  winter  the  sows  should  be  kept  strong  and  thrifty  by  feeding 
a  ration  containing  plenty  of  protein  and  mineral  matter.  The  amount 
should  be  limited  so  they  will  not  become  too  fat,  but  on  the  other 
hand  they  must  not  be  allowed  to  grow  thin.  If  rich  concentrates 
only  are  given  and  the  animals  not  overfed,  the  feed  allowance  will 
not  have  enough  bulk  to  distend  the  stomach  and  intestines  properly, 
and  this  leaves  the  animals  unsatisfied,  restless,  and  quarrelsome.  To 
correct  this  trouble  and  because  such  feed  is  both  cheap  and  whole- 


356  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

some,  the  sows  should  be  fed  some  fine,  well-cured  legume  hay  or  some 
roots,  or  better,  both  hay  and  roots.  If,  unfortunately,  neither  is 
available,  then  bran  and  oats,  tho  more  costly,  will  be  helpful  in  giving 
bulk  to  the  ration. 

Sows  fed  corn  alone  will  usually  farrow  small  litters  of  weak  pigs, 
due  to  the  deficiency  of  this  grain  in  protein  and  mineral  matter. 
The  ration  should  therefore  always  be  balanced  by  the  use  of  such 
protein-rich  feeds  as  alfalfa  or  clover  hay,  skim  milk,  tankage,  linseed 
meal,  wheat  middlings,  and  wheat  bran,  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the 
ration  being  not  wider  than  1  :  6  or  1  :  7.  In  trials  at  the  North  Platte, 
Nebraska,  Sub-station,^  340-lb.  brood  sows  were  wintered  satisfactorily 
on  1.1  lbs.  shelled  corn  daily  per  100  lbs.  live  weight  with  alfalfa  hay 
supplied  in  racks,  the  sows  eating  0.7  lb.  per  head  daily.  Constipation 
should  be  warded  ofif  by  the  use  of  such  laxative  feeds  as  linseed 
meal,  roots,  and  alfalfa  or  clover  hay. 

The  age  at  which  to  breed  young  sows  will  naturally  depend  some- 
what on  the  growth  they  have  made.  Seldom  is  it  advisable  to  breed 
them  until  they  are  8  months  old,  and  many  stockmen  prefer  to  wait 
until  they  are  10  to  12  montlis  old.  Sows  and  boars  of  the  larger 
breeds  should  reach  a  weight  of  250  to  300  lbs.  at  one  year  if  rightly 
fed  and  managed.  Whether  to  raise  1  or  2  litters  a  year  will  depend 
on  local  conditions,  considering  the  winter  climate  and  the  feeds  avail- 
able. Where  winters  are  long  and  severe  and  the  sows  and  pigs  can 
not  be  given  the  best  of  feed  and  care,  it  is  best  not  to  attempt  to  raise 
2  litters  a  year.  Under  the  proper  conditions,  especially  where  dairj^ 
by-products  are  available,  2  litters  a  j^ear  can  be  raised  successfully 
even  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  country,  the  spring  pigs  coming 
in  March  or  April  and  the  fall  pigs  in  September  or  early  October. 

According  to  Coburn,®  3^oung  sows  carry  their  pigs  from  100  to  108 
days  and  old  ones  from  112  to  115,  the  average  for  all  being  112  days. 
From  the  records  of  1,477  pure-bred  sows  of  8  breeds  Rommel "  found 
that  on  an  average  there  were  9  pigs  to  the  litter,  50.1  per  ct.  being 
males  and  49.9  per  ct.  females.  Likely  sows  that  are  kindly  mothers 
should  be  retained  for  breeders  as  long  as  5  or  6  years  if  possible. 
Those  which  produce  litters  of  less  than  5  should  be  discarded. 

The  boar. — The  feed  and  care  of  the  boar  does  not  differ  materially 
from  that  of  the  sows.  He  should  be  kept  in  thrifty  condition,  neither 
too  fat  nor  run  down  in  flesh,  as  either  extreme  may  injure  his  breeding 
powers.  In  summer  the  boar  should  run  in  a  pasture  lot,  and  in 
winter  he  should  have  the  freedom  of  a  small  yard  adjoining  the 

7  Snyder,  Nebr.  Bui.  147. 

8  Swine  in  America. 

9\J.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.,  Cir.  112. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  SWINE  357 

pen.  About  1  lb.  of  concentrates  daily  per  100  lbs.  live  weight  is 
sufficient  in  summer  for  fairly  mature  boars  on  good  pasture.  Young 
boars  need  enough  concentrates  to  keep  them  growing  thriftily.  In 
winter  2  lbs.  of  concentrates  daily  per  100  lbs.  live  weight  with  roots 
and  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  should  suffice.  During  service  the  boar 
requires  more  feed  than  at  other  seasons. 

At  farrowing  time. — From  one  to  three  weeks  before  farrowing 
the  sow  should  be  separated  from  the  other  hogs  and  placed  in  a  sunny 
farrowing  pen  to  become  accustomed  to  her  surroundings.  Her  ration 
should  now  be  reduced  and  consist  of  cooling,  laxative  feeds,  such  as 
roots,  legume  hay,  and  a  slop  made  largely  of  wheat  bran  or  shorts, 
with  perhaps  linseed  meal  and  ground  oats.  By  enforcing  exercise 
for  brood  sows,  preventing  constipation,  and  keeping  them  thrifty 
thru  feeding  a  well-balanced  ration,  little  trouble  will  be  experienced 
from  sows  eating  their  new-born  pigs. 

The  farrowing  place  should  be  comfortable,  dry,  well-ventilated,  and 
so  sheltered  that  a  deep  nest  is  not  necessary  to  prevent  the  new-born 
pigs  being  chilled,  for  they  may  be  crushed  in  a  deep,  bird-like  nest. 
Cut  straw  or  hay,  chaff,  and  leaves  are  the  best  for  bedding  provided 
they  are  reasonably  free  from  dust.  Long  hay  or  straw  may  entangle 
the  pigs.  A  plank  fastened  with  the  edge  against  the  wall,  placed 
about  8  inches  from  the  floor  and  standing  out  8  inches  from  the  sides 
of  the  farrowing  pen  lessens  the  danger  of  the  mother  crushing  her 
young.  In  the  case  of  heavy,  clumsy  sows,  separate  the  pigs  from  the 
dam  by  placing  them  in  a  chaff -lined  box  or  barrel  for  a  couple  of 
days.  Sows  properly  handled  before  farrowing  will  not  usually  re- 
sent such  separation.  The  pigs  will  then  be  safe,  and  the  attendant 
can  pass  them  to  the  dam  for  nourishment  at  short  intervals.  A 
chilled  pig  may  be  revived  by  immersion  in  water  as  warm  as  the 
hand  will  bear. 

The  weights  of  the  pigs  at  birth  range  from  less  than  1.5  lbs.  to 
over  8  lbs.,  about  2.5  lbs.  being  the  average  with  our  common  breeds. 

Care  of  sow  and  litter. — For  the  first  24  hours  after  farrowing  only 
lukewarm  water  should  be  given  the  sow  unless  she  shows  a  decided 
desire  for  feed,  when  a  little  thin,  warm  slop  may  be  offered.  The 
ration  for  the  following  4  or  5  days  should  be  light,  after  which  she 
should  gradually  be  brought  to  full  feed,  as  her  milk  flow  increases. 
The  coarse  feeds,  so  useful  at  other  times,  must  now  largely  give  way 
to  rich  concentrates,  such  as  skim  milk,  tankage,  heavy  flour  middlings, 
ground  oats,  soybeans,  cowpeas,  and  linseed  meal,  to  furnish  nitroge- 
nous matter,  and  corn,  barley,  kafir,  or  milo  meal  in  large  proportion 
to  furnish  the  carbohydrates.  Water  should  be  liberally  added  to 
form  a  thin  slop.     Sows  with  litters  should  be  liberally  fed,  for  at  no 


358  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

other  time  will  feed  go  so  far  or  give  such  large  returns.  Good  moth- 
ers with  large  litters  will  usually  lose  flesh  in  spite  of  the  most  liberal 
feeding. 

Feeding  the  litters. — When  2  or  3  weeks  old  the  unweaned  pigs 
should  be  encouraged  to  eat  with  the  mother  by  providing  thin,  sloppy 
food  in  a  shallow,  low-set  trough.  Because  the  sucklings  cannot  fully 
satisfy  their  hunger  by  such  a  provision,  there  should  be  further  pro- 
vided a  separate,  low  trough  which  cannot  be  reached  by  the  dam. 
For  young  pigs  dairy  by-products,  in  combination  with  various  ground 
grains  and  milling  by-products,  are  easily  the  best  of  all  feeds.  For 
very  young  pigs  there  is  nothing  better  among  the  grains  than  ground 
oats,  with  the  hulls  sieved  or  floated  out,  and  red  dog  flour.  Corn, 
barley,  kafir,  and  milo  meal,  dark  feeding  flour,  flour  wheat  middlings, 
and  ground  emmer  with  the  chaff  removed,  etc.,  may  all  be  freely  used 
for  sows  and  pigs  as  the  young  things  come  on.  Soaked  whole  corn 
thinly  scattered  over  a  feeding  floor  gives  feed  and  enforces  exercise. 
Pigs  well  fed  before  weaning  grow  faster  and  draw  less  on  the  sow — 
a  matter  of  importance  where  the  litters  are  large. 

Where  1  litter  of  pigs  is  raised  a  year,  the  pigs  may  run  with  their 
dams  10  or  12  weeks,  or  the  sow  may  be  allowed  to  wean  her  pigs  her- 
self. However,  when  2  litters  are  to  be  raised,  the  pigs  must  be 
weaned  at  the  age  of  about  8  weeks.  The  sow  should  be  separated 
from  the  pigs,  and  only  returned  2  or  3  times  long  enough  for  them 
to  empty  the  udders.  On  weaning,  pigs  of  the  same  size  should  be 
placed  in  groups  of  not  over  20  in  order  that  each  may  receive  its 
share  of  feed  and  proper  care  and  attention. 

The  growing  pigs. — Good  pasture  should  always  be  provided  for 
spring  pigs  after  weaning,  for  this  not  only  makes  them  more  vigorous 
but  also  greatly  reduces  the  cost  of  the  gains  made.  In  addition  to 
such  pasture  as  alfalfa,  clover,  or  rape,  at  least  2  lbs,  of  concentrates 
daily  per  100  lbs.  live  weight  should  be  fed,  except  where  pasture  is 
unusually  cheap  compared  with  grain,  and  the  allowance  of  concen- 
trates should  never  be  less  than  1  lb.  daily  per  100  lbs.  live  weight. 
Pigs  should  gain  at  least  one-half  to  three-fourths  pound  per  day. 

In  winter  the  pigs  should  be  liberally  fed  the  finer  parts  of  some 
legume  hay,  such  as  alfalfa  or  clover.  Roots  are  also  an  excellent 
addition  to  the  ration.  These  feeds  are  not  only  cheap  but  also  help 
to  develop  a  roomy  digestive  tract  capable  of  utilizing  a  large  amount 
of  feed  when  the  fattening  period  arrives.  Moreover,  legume  hay  is 
rich  in  protein  and  lime,  needed  in  large  amounts  by  young  animals. 
But  roughage  alone  is  not  sufflcient  for  the  growing  pig,  and  therefore 
a  reasonable  supply  of  rich  concentrates  containing  but  little  fiber 
should  be  fed  in  addition.     Corn,  barley,  milo,  kafir,  and  the  other 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  SWINE  359 

cereal  grains  should  be  given  to  furnish  heat  and  lay  on  fat,  while  a 
supply  of  skim  milk,  tankage,  wheat  middlings,  soybeans,  and  other 
nitrogenous  feeds  will  furnish  the  protein  for  muscle  building. 


Fig.  101. — A  Carload  of  Bacon  Pigs  at  the  Stock  Yards 

The  Large  Yorkshires,  shown  in  the  illustration,  and  the  Tamworths  have  been 
specially  developed  for  the  production  of  high-quality  bacon.  Note  the  length 
of  body  and  leg  of  these  pigs. 

The  finishing  period. — If  the  shotes  have  been  fed  enough  concen- 
trates to  keep  them  growing  rapidly  and  have  been  laying  on  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  fat  at  the  same  time,  the  finishing  period  need 
not  exceed  8  weeks,  unless  a  rising  market  warrants  feeding  them 
longer.  The  feeder  should  remember  that  after  the  first  few  weeks 
of  heavy  feeding  more  and  more  feed  is  required  to  produce  a  given 
gain,  the  cost  thus  steadily  increasing. 

Finishing  the  shotes  is  best  accomplished  by  restricting  the  amount 
of  exercise,  reducing  the  allowance  of  coarse  feed,  and  giving  all  the 
carbohydrate-rich  concentrates,  such  as  corn,  barley,  kafir,  milo,  and 
emmer,  that  the  pigs  will  consume,  with  sufficient  protein-rich  feeds 
to  balance  the  ration.  Especially  during  the  first  part  of  the  fattening 
period,  considerable  use  can  be  made  of  legume  hay  or  pasture  crops. 
Fattening  pigs  should  drink  water  freely,  being  forced  to  do  so,  if 


360  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

necessarj^,  by  placing  it  in  their  feed.  Ample  mineral  matter  should 
be  provided,  and  correctives  should  be  supplied,  as  recommended 
elsewhere  in  this  chapter.  The  pigs  should  be  fed  twice  daily,  and 
possibly  three  times  toward  the  close  of  fattening  when  on  ground  feed 
and  getting  little  or  no  roughage,  or  else  they  should  be  fed  by 
means  of  a  self  feeder.  In  the  corn  belt  many  pigs  are  fattened  by 
following  steers  fed  corn.  As  shown  in  Chapter  XXIII,  those  thin  in 
flesh,  weighing  100  to  150  lbs.,  are  best  for  this  purpose. 

Bacon  production. — In  northern  Europe,  especially  Denmark  and 
Ireland,  raising  bacon-type  pigs  and  feeding  them  so  as  to  produce 
the  highest  quality  of  bacon,  is  an  industry  of  great  importance.  In 
this  country,  however,  nearly  all  the  pigs  are  of  the  lard  type,  the 
bacon  on  the  market  being  obtained  from  lard-type  pigs  which  do  not 
carry  too  much  fat.  For  the  production  of  high-quality  bacon,  the 
carcass  should  show  much  less  fat  in  proportion  to  lean  meat  than  in 
lard  hogs,  and  the  fat  should  be  firm  and  solid.  Soft  pork  unsuited 
to  the  production  of  high-quality  bacon  is  due  on  the  part  of  the 
animal  to  unthriftiness,  lack  of  exercise,  immaturity,  and  lack  of 
finish,  and  only  in  a  small  way  to  the  breed.  In  general,  improper 
feeding  stuffs  and  feeds  improperly  combined  tend  to  produce  low- 
quality  bacon.  Corn,  beans,  soybeans,  and  peanuts  all  tend  to  produce 
soft  pork.  Barley  ranks  first  for  bacon  production,  followed  by  oats 
and  peas.  Skim  milk  and  whey  in  combination  with  the  cereal  grains, 
including  corn  in  limited  amount,  make  good  bacon.  Rape,  roots, 
and  clover  are  helpful,  but  too  much  succulent  feed  should  not  be 
used.  For  choice  bacon,  pigs  should  be  fed  slightly  less  than  the  full 
ration. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Compare  pigs  with  the  otiier  farm  animals  in  economy  of  gains. 

2.  Discuss  the  nutrient  requirements  of  swine. 

3.  Does  it  pay  to  grind  corn  or  other  grain  for  pigs? 

4.  Wliat  feeds  would  you  cook  for  pigs? 

5.  Tell  about  (a)  the  water  requirements  of  pigs;  (b)  the  requirements  for 
salt  and  mineral  correctives. 

(j.  When  would  you  use  self-feeders  for  swine? 

7.  Discuss  the  subjects  of  shelter  and  exercise  for  swine. 

8.  Describe  the  types  of  swine. 

9.  Point  out  briefly  the  most  important  points  in  feeding  and  caring  for 
brood  sows. 

10.  How  would  you  feed  the  boar? 

11.  Tell  about  the  feed  and  care  of  the  brood  sow  before  and  after  farrowing. 

12.  Discuss  (a)  the  feeding  of  young  pigs;  (b)  finishing  shotes  for  market; 
(c)   bacon  production. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

FEEDS  FOR  SWINE 

I.    Carbonaceous  Concentrates 

The  digestive  organs  of  the  pig  are  of  limited  capacity  compared 
with  those  of  other  farm  animals,  for  pigs  have  neither  the  large  four- 
fold stomach  of  ruminants  nor  a  caecum  of  large  size,  as  has  the  horse. 
While  in  cattle  the  digestive  organs  with  their  contents  comprise  over 
14  per  ct.  of  the  total  weight  of  the  body,  in  pigs  they  make  up  but  7 
per  ct.  of  the  body  weight.  Pigs  therefore  require  feed  that  is  more 
concentrated  and  digestible  and  less  woody  than  do  horses,  cattle,  and 
sheep.  In  nature  the  pig  is  an  omnivorous  feeder,  living  not  only 
on  the  seeds,  leaves  and  tender  stems  and  roots  of  plants,  but  on 
animal  matter  as  well.  Moreover,  he  lives  close  to  the  earth,  gather- 
ing some  of  his  food  from  beneath  the  surface  and  swallowing  con- 
siderable earthy  matter  in  so  doing.  The  intelligent  swine  feeder 
bears  all  these  facts  in  mind  in  feeding  his  herd. 

Indian  corn. — This  imperial  fattening  grain  is  the  common  hog 
feed  in  the  great  pork-producing  districts  of  America.  As  has  been 
pointed  out  before,  corn  is  low  in  protein  compared  with  its  wealth 
of  carbohydrates  and  fat,  and  is  also  deficient  in  mineral  matter. 
Hence,  even  for  fattening  well-grown  pigs,  much  larger  and  more 
economical  gains  are  secured  when  this  grain  is  properly  supple- 
mented by  feeds  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter,  especially  cal- 
cium, or  lime.  This  is  clearly  shown  in  the  following  table,  which 
summarizes  the  results  of  32  trials  at  various  stations,  averaging  82 
days,  in  each  of  which  one  lot  of  pigs  was  fed  corn  alone  and  another 
lot  corn  and  a  protein-rich  concentrate,  such  as  tankage,  wheat 
middlings,  linseed  meal,  pea  meal,  or  soybean  meal. 

Corn  alone  vs.  corn  and  nitrogenous  supplement  for  pigs 


Average  ration 

Lot  I,  total  of  ISO  pigs 

Corn,    4.8    lbs 

Initial 
weight 
Lbs. 

115 

Daily 
gain 
Lbs. 

0.9 

1.3 

Feed  for  100 

lbs.  gain 

Lbs. 

602 

Lot  II,  total  of  187  pigs 

Corn,  4.3  lbs.     Supplement,   1.4   lbs 

117 

441 

Altho  most  of  these  pigs  were  well  grown  when  placed  on  trial, 

361 


362  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

averaging  over  100  lbs.  in  weight,  Lot  II,  fed  corn  and  a  nitrogenous 
supplement,  made  over  40  per  ct.  larger  gains  and  required  27  per  ct. 
less  feed  for  100  lbs.  gain.  Had  they  been  younger  at  the  beginning 
of  the  trials  those  fed  corn  only  would  have  done  even  poorer.  These 
trials  show  that  one  cannot  afford  to  feed  corn  alone  to  growing,  fat- 
tening pigs.  Corn  alone  gives  fair  results  for  fattening  mature  sows, 
l)ut  even  here  the  use  of  a  supplement  is  advisable.  As  has  been  shown 
in  the  previous  chapter,  for  brood  sows  it  is  highly  important  that 
feeds  rich  in  protein  and  lime  be  fed  with  corn. 

In  the  corn  belt  corn  is  usually  fed  on  the  cob.  This  is  a  wise 
practice,  for  as  we  have  seen  in  the  previous  chapter,  there  is  no 
appreciable  advantage  in  shelling,  grinding,  or  soaking  corn  for  pigs 
under  150  lbs.  in  weight,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  even  for  older 
ones  the  slight  saving  will  pay  for  such  preparation.  Pigs  do  better 
on  ear  corn  than  on  corn-and-cob  meal,  for  their  digestive  organs 
can  not  well  utilize  a  hard,  fibrous  material  like  corn  cobs,  even  when 
ground. 

Hogging  down  corn. — In  the  corn  belt  many  farmers  turn  pigs 
into  fields  of  standing  corn,  in  which  rape  or  other  supplemental  crops 
have  usually  been  sown,  and  let  them  do  their  own  harvesting.  In 
three  trials  at  the  Minnesota^  and  Iowa  ^  Stations  this  "hogging 
down"  system  was  compared  with  feeding  ear  corn  in  a  yard,  either 
wheat  middlings  or  tankage  being  fed  to  all  lots  in  addition.  The 
pigs  hogging  down  corn  in  which  rape  or  rye  had  been  sown  at  the 
last  cultivation  made  larger  gains  and  required  10  per  ct.  less  con- 
centrates for  100  lbs.  gain  than  those  fed  ear  corn  in  the  yard. 

In  tests  at  the  Iowa  Station  rape  was  grown  in  the  corn  field  at  an 
additional  cost  of  only  $0.40  per  acre,  rape  and  pumpkins  at  $1.00, 
rye,  soybeans,  or  cowpeas  at  $3.33,  field  peas  at  $3.60,  and  hairy  vetch 
at  $6.00  per  acre.  Feeding  some  protein-rich  concentrate,  such  as 
skim  milk,  tankage,  wheat  middlings,  or  linseed  meal,  is  always  de- 
sirable, and  is  especially  important  when  no  supplemental  crops  have 
been  grown  in  the  corn  field.  Spring  shotes,  well  grown  on  pasture 
and  forage  crops,  are  generally  used  for  hogging  down.  Provided 
the  ground  is  not  muddy,  pigs  hogging  down  corn  pick  it  up  as  closely 
as  is  usually  done  in  husking.  The  pigs  should  be  confined  to  limited 
areas  by  fencing,  so  that  they  will  clean  up  each  area  in  20,  or  better, 
in  14  days. 

The  other  cereals. — In  Europe  barley  is  the  most  esteemed  cereal 
for  the  production  of  high  quality  bacon  and  in  this  country  is  im- 
portant as  a  feed  for  pigs  in  the  western  states.     In  6  trials  at  west- 

1  Gaumnitz,  Wilson,  and  Bassett,  Minn.  Bui.  104. 

2  Evvard,  Iowa  Bui.  143. 


FEEDS  FOR  SWINE 


363 


ern  stations  pigs  fed  ground  barley  and  wheat  middings  made  slightly 
smaller  gains  than  others  fed  ground  corn  and  middlings,  and  re- 
quired 10  per  ct.  more  feed  for  100  lbs.  gain. 

Wheat  is  slightly  superior  to  corn  for  fattening  pigs  ^  but  when  of 
good  quality  it  is  usually  too  expensive  to  be  fed  to  stock.     Grain 


Fig.  102. — Fattening  Pigs  Hogging  Down  Corn 

Pigs  hogging  down  corn  in  which  rape  or  other  supplemental  crops  liave  been 
sown  make  larger  and  cheaper  gains  than  those  fed  ear  corn  in  a  dry  lot.  ( From 
Evvard,  Iowa  Station.) 

which  is  damaged  in  quality  and  is  not  suited  for  milling  may  be 
worth  nearly  as  much  as  sound  grain  for  pig  feeding. 

Bye  meal  ranks  a  little  below  corn  meal  and  is  about  equal  to  barley 
meal  as  a  feed  for  pigs. 

Oats  are  too  bulky  to  serve  as  the  only  grain  for  fattening  pigs  and 
are  usually  costly  compared  with  other  cereals.  In  trials  by  the 
senior  author*  one-third  oats  and  two-thirds  corn  gave  better  results 
than  two-thirds  oats  and  one-third  corn.  Toward  the  close  of  the 
fattening  period  but  little  oats  should  be  fed.  For  brood  sows  oats 
are  excellent,  and  for  little  pigs  nothing  excels  ground  oats  with  the 
hulls  sifted  out. 

Emmer  is  also  too  bulky  to  give  the  best  results  when  fed  as  the 

3  Weaver,  Mo.  Bui.  136;   Eastwood,  Ohio  Bui.  268. 

4  Wis.  Rpt.  1889. 


364  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

only  grain  to  fattening  pigs.  A  mixture  of  emmer  and  corn,  how- 
ever, gave  nearly  as  good  results  as  corn  alone  in  a  trial  at  the  Ne- 
braska Station,^  both  lots  getting  alfalfa  hay  in  addition  to  the  grain. 

The  grain  sorghums  are  of  great  importance  for  pork  production 
thruout  the  western  plains  states.  In  trials  at  the  Kansas  Station " 
pigs  fed  ground  milo  or  kafir  with  wheat  shorts  and  tankage  made 
nearly  as  large  gains  as  others  fed  corn,  shorts  and  tankage,  and  re- 
quired only  2  to  5  per  ct.  more  feed  for  100  lbs.  gain.  Feterita  and 
kaoliang  ranked  somewhat  below  kafir  or  milo,  and  sorgho  grain  was 
still  less  valuable,  being  rather  unpalatable. 

Seed  from  hog  or  hroom-corn  millet  is  satisfactory  for  pigs  when 
ground  and  mixed  with  other  feeds.  At  the  South  Dakota  Station '' 
pigs  fed  millet  meal  required  20  per  ct.  more  feed  for  100  lbs.  gain 
than  others  fed  barley  meal. 

As  we  have  seen  in  the  previous  chapter,  it  pays  to  grind  all  the 
smaller  cereals  for  pigs,  tho  sometimes  it  is  advisable  to  scatter  whole 
oats  thinly  on  the  ground  or  a  feeding  floor  to  force  brood  sows  to 
exercise.  Barley,  wheat,  rye,  and  the  grain  sorghums  are  all  low  in 
protein  and,  like  corn,  should  be  fed  with  protein-rich  feeds,  such  as 
skim  milk,  tankage,  wheat  middlings,  linseed  meal,  and  soj^beans. 

Hominy  feed. — Trials  at  the  Indiana  ^  and  Ohio  ^  Stations  show 
that  hominy  feed  is  more  valuable  than  corn  for  fattening  pigs.  Pigs 
fed  hominy  feed  with  either  tankage  or  wheat  shorts  required  14 
per  ct.  less  feed  per  100  lbs.  gain  than  others  fed  corn  meal  and  the 
same  supplements. 

Garbage. — Kitchen  waste  may  be  fed  to  swine,  but  care  must  be 
taken  that  dishwater  containing  lye  or  washing  soda,  broken  dishes, 
etc.,  which  are  apt  to  cause  death,  be  kept  apart  from  the  materials 
having  food  value.  As  there  is  likewise  danger  of  poisons  resulting 
from  the  decay  of  the  garbage,  the  material  should  be  thoroly  cooked 
in  all  doubtful  eases. 

II.     Protein-rich  Concentrates 

Skim  milk  and  buttermilk. — Rich  in  digestible  protein  and  high 
in  mineral  matter,  especially  calcium  and  phosphorus,  skim  milk  and 
buttermilk  are  ideal  supplements  to  the  cereals.  Indeed,  where  skim 
milk  or  buttermilk  is  used  as  a  supplement  to  corn  or  other  cereals 

5  Burnett  and  Snyder,  Nebr.  Bui.  99. 

6  Waters,  Kinzer,  Wright,  and  King,  Kan.  Bui.  192;  Cochel,  Kansas  Indus- 
trialist, May  1,  1915. 

7  Wilson  and  Skinner,  S.  D.  Bui.  83. 

8  Skinner  and  King,  Ind.  Bui.  158. 

9  Eastwood,  Ohio  Bui.  268. 


FEEDS  FOR  SWINE  365 

for  growing,  fattening  pigs,  the  gains  will  usually  be  slightly  larger 
than  where  other  protein-rich  feeds,  such  as  tankage,  wheat  middlings, 
linseed  meal,  or  soybean  meal,  are  fed  as  supplements.  These  dairy 
by-products  are  especially  valuable  for  young  pigs  after  weaning  and 
also  for  brood  sows.  If  no  water  has  been  added,  buttermilk  is  fully 
equal  to  skim  milk  for  pig  feeding. 

It  has  been  emphasized  before  that  skim  milk,  buttermilk,  or  whey 
should  always  be  pasteurized  at  the  creamery  or  cheese  factory  before 
being  returned  to  the  farm,  in  order  to  prevent  the  spread  of  disease, 
especially  tuberculosis,  to  which  pigs  are  particularly  susceptible. 

Proper  proportion  of  milk  to  grain. — Skim  milk  and  buttermilk 
are  too  watery  and  also  too  rich  in  protein  to  produce  economical 
gains  when  fed  alone.  They  should  therefore  always  be  fed  with  the 
cereals  or  such  carbonaceous  concentrates  as  hominy  feed.  The  pro- 
portion of  skim  milk  or  buttermilk  to  be  fed  with  corn  or  other  grain 
will  depend  first  on  the  age  of  the  pigs  and  next  on  the  relative  price 
of  the  feeds.  After  sufficient  milk  has  been  supplied  to  balance  the 
ration,  any  addition  will  not  increase  the  rate  of  gain  and  may  even 
lower  it  if  too  much  is  fed. 

Just  after  weaning  4  to  6  lbs.  of  skim  milk  to  each  pound  of  corn 
will  be  sufficient,  to  make  maximum  gains  with  pigs  in  a  dry  lot.  As 
they  grow  older  the  proportion  of  skim  milk  or  buttermilk  needed  to 
balance  the  ration  decreases  as  follows:  Pigs  weighing  50-100  lbs., 
3  lbs.  milk  to  1  lb.  -corn ;  pigs  weighing  100-150  lbs.,  2-2.5  lbs.  milk 
to  1  lb.  corn ;  pigs  weighing  150-200  lbs.  or  over,  1.5-2.0  lbs.  or  less. 
(See  Appendix  Table  V.)  Pigs  on  such  pasture  as  alfalfa,  clover, 
or  rape  need  less  milk  to  balance  the  ration. 

Considerably  more  milk  may  be  fed  than  is  here  stated  with  satis- 
factory results  when  a  surplus  is  at  hand ;  tho  it  will  not  have  so  high  a 
value  per  100  lbs.  as  when  only  sufficient  is  fed  to  balance  the  ration. 
This  is  shown  in  trials  by  the  senior  author  at  the  Wisconsin  Sta- 
tion 1^  in  which  a  total  of  88  pigs,  usually  weighing  100  lbs.  or  over, 
were  fed  dii¥erent  proportions  of  skim  milk  and  corn  meal.  When 
1  to  3  lbs.  of  skim  milk  was  fed  to  1  lb.  of  corn,  327  lbs.  of  milk  saved 
]00  lbs.  of  corn-  However,  with  3  to  5  lbs.  of  milk  for  each  pound  of 
corn  it  required  446  lbs.  of  milk  to  save  100  lbs.  of  corn;  and  with 
5  to  7  lbs.  of  milk  per  pound  of  corn,  574  lbs. 

Money  value  of  skim  milk. — The  money  value  of  skim  milk,  com- 
pared with  corn  at  various  prices,  provided  not  over  1  to  3  lbs.  of  milk 
is  fed  with  each  pound  of  corn,  is  shown  in  the  following  table,  de- 
rived from  the  studies  of  the  senior  author. 

10  Wis.  Rpt.  18i;5. 


366  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

100  lbs.  skim 

milk  is  worth 

Cents 

Corn  at  $18  per  ton  or  50.4  cents  per  bushel 28 

Corn  at  $20  per  ton  or  56.0  cents  per  bushel 31 

Corn  at  $23  per  ton  or  64.4  cents  per  bushel 35 

Corn  at  $26  per  ton  or  72.8  cents  per  bushel 40 

Corn  at  $30  per  ton  or  84.0  cents  per  bushel 46 

Those  familiar  with  this  feeding  stuff  and  its  worth  for  bone  and 


103. — Pigs  Self-Fed  Corn  and  Tankage  on  Alfalfa  Pasture 


On  such  a  combination  of  feeds,  growing  pigs  make  large  and  economical  gains. 
Even  on  alfalfa  pasture,  it  is  advisable  to  feed  tankage  or  some  other  supplement 
with  shelled  corn.      (From  Wisconsin  Station.) 

muscle  building  know  that  in  many  cases,  especially  for  young  pigs 
and  brood  sows,  its  value  is  even  higher  than  stated. 

Whey. — Pig-feeding  trials  at  American  stations  and  in  Denmark 
show  that  1,000  lbs.  of  whey,  such  as  is  obtained  from  American 
Cheddar  cheese  factories,  will  save  100  lbs.  of  grain  when  properly 
combined  with  concentrates.  Unlike  skim  milk  and  buttermilk,  whey 
contains  only  a  fair  amount  of  protein,  having  a  nutritive  ratio  of 
1  :  6.8.  It  should  therefore  not  be  fed  with  only  corn  or  other  cereals, 
but  along  with  some  protein-rich  concentrate  like  tankage,  wheat 
middlings,  or  linseed  meal  to  balance  the  ration.  Slightly  sour  whey 
has  as  high  value  as  sweet  whey,  but  that  which  is  allowed  to  putrefy 
in  filthy  tanks  is  a  dangerous  feed. 


FEEDS  FOR  SWINE  367 

Tankage;  meat  meal. — The  value  of  tankage  or  meat  meal  as  a 
supplement  to  corn  and  other  carbonaceous  concentrates  has  been 
demonstrated  in  trials  at  many  stations  and  by  experience  on  many 
farms.  Rich  in  protein  which  is  well-balanced  in  composition,  and 
likewise  high  in  calcium  and  phosphorus,  tankage  is  excelled  only  by 
skim  milk  and  buttermilk  in  producing  thrifty  growth  and  large  gains. 
Since  tankage  or  meat  meal  for  stock  feeding  is  thoroly  cooked  under 
pressure  at  a  high  temperature,  there  is  no  danger  of  spreading  disease 
by  its  use. 

Trials  at  various  stations  show  that  when  highgrade  tankage,  carry- 
ing 55  per  ct.  of  protein  or  over,  is  fed  as  the  sole  supplement  to  corn 
to  pigs  over  100  lbs.  in  weight,  not  over  9  to  10  per  ct.  is  needed  to 
balance  the  ration.  With  mature  pigs  even  less  tankage  need  be  fed. 
With  young  pigs  soon  after  weaning  it  is  advisable  to  feed  as  high  as 
20  per  ct.  of  tankage,  or  better,  9  to  10  per  ct.  of  tankage  and  sufficient 
linseed  meal,  wheat  middlings,  etc.,  to  provide  the  proper  amount  of 
protein  for  animals  of  this  age.  Where  a  lower  grade  of  tankage  is 
fed,  the  amount  supplied  should  be  correspondingly  increased.  For 
pigs  fed  corn  on  such  protein-rich  pasture  as  alfalfa,  clover,  soybean, 
cowpea,  or  rape,  5  per  ct.  of  high  grade  tankage  is  usually  sufficient 
to  balance  the  ration.  When  pigs  are  following  steers  being  fattened 
chiefly  on  corn,  it  will  pay  to  feed  the  pigs  one-fourth  to  one-third 
pound  of  tankage  per  head  daily. 

Wheat  by-products. — Wheat  middlings,  or  shorts,  are  one  of  the 
most  popular  nitrogenous  supplements  for  pigs.  They  are  rich  in  pro- 
tein and  phosphorus,  but  are  relatively  low  in  calcium.  Hence,  when 
middlings  are  used  as  the  only  supplement  to  corn  for  pigs  in  dry 
lots,  it  is  important  to  supply  additional  calcium  in  the  form  of  ground 
limestone,  slaked  lime,  etc.  As  middlings  are  not  very  high  in  pro- 
tein, a  relatively  large  amount  must  be  fed  to  balance  the  ration  if 
they  are  the  only  supplement  to  corn.  For  example,  pigs  under  100 
lbs.  in  weight  should  receive  2  lbs.  of  middlings  or  a  trifle  more  to 
each  pound  of  corn,  while  those  weighing  150  lbs.  will  need  but  1  lb. 
of  middlings  per  pound  of  corn.  Pigs  fed  corn  and  tankage  will 
usually  make  slightly  larger  gains  than  those  fed  corn  and  middlings, 
but  a  combination  of  the  three  feeds  excels  even  corn  and  tankage  alone 
in  the  rate  of  gains  made. 

Red  dog  ft  our  and  flour  wheat  middlings  are  worth  somewhat  more 
than  standard  middlings,  as  they  contain  more  protein  and  also  over 
10  per  ct.  more  total  digestible  nutrients.  Red  dog  flour  is  especially 
useful  for  quite  young  pigs,  which  need  a  highly  digestible,  palatable 
feed  containing  little  fiber. 

Wheat  bran  is  too  bulky  to  be  fed  in  large  amounts  to  fattening 


368  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

pigs,  middlings  being  far  preferable.  "Where  clover  or  alfalfa  hay, 
roots,  or  other  cheap  bulky  feed  are  not  available,  a  limited  amount  of 
bran  is  excellent  for  brood  sows,  as  it  is  bulky  and  also  laxative. 

Linseed  meal. — Linseed  meal  is  an  excellent  supplement  to  corn  or 
the  other  cereals,  pigs  fed  this  combination  making:  good  gains  and 
yielding  pork  having  firm,  white  fat.  Because  of  its  mucilaginous 
character,  linseed  meal  makes  a  slop  of  uniform,  creamy  consistency. 
Since  sufficient  linseed  meal  to  balance  a  ration  of  corn  or  other  cereals 
often  renders  it  unpalatable  to  pigs,  many  feeders  prefer  to  give 
less  linseed  meal  and  add  a  small  allowance  of  other  supplements, 
such  as  skim  milk,  tankage,  or  middlings.  Especiallv  for  brood  sows, 
it  is  often  highly  beneficial  to  add  a  small  amount  of  linseed  meal  to 
the  ration  on  account  of  its  laxative  effect. 

Other  protein-rich  concentrates. — Cottonseed  meal,  as  now  pre- 
pared, is  poisonous  to  swine,  and  no  uniformly  successful  method  of 
feeding  it  has  yet  been  found,  tho  a  few  feeders,  guided  by  experi- 
ence, use  it  with  little  loss.  If  cottonseed  meal  is  not  fed  continuously 
for  over  40  days  and  does  not  form  over  one-fourth  of  the  ration,  and 
if  the  pigs  are  freely  supplied  with  green  forage  or  graze  on  pasture, 
the  risk  is  slight.  It  is  considered  safe  to  have  pigs  follow  steers 
■which  are  being  fed  cottonseed  meal,  for  the  meal  does  not  seem  to  be 
poisonous  after  passing  thru  the  cattle.  One  should  see  that  the  steers 
do  not  throw  so  much  meal  out  of  the  feed  boxes  that  the  pigs  may 
be  poisoned  by  eating  it. 

Field  peas,  rich  in  protein,  are  well  suited  to  supplement  corn  and 
the  other  cereals.  In  certain  irrigated  mountain  valleys  of  the  West 
large  numbers  of  pigs  are  fattened  by  turning  them  into  fields  of 
peas,  or  peas  grown  with  oats  or  barley,  after  they  have  matured,  an 
acre  of  good  peas  producing  about  400  lbs.  of  gain. 

Pigs  fed  soyheans  and  corn  made  slightly  larger  gains  than  others 
fed  linseed  meal  and  corn  at  the  Indiana  Station,"  and  required  some- 
what less  feed  for  100  lbs.  of  gain.  No  more  soybeans  should  be  fed 
than  is  needed  to  balance  the  ration,  for  when  fed  in  large  amount 
they  produce  soft  pork,  dark  in  color.  They  are  commonly  ground 
for  pigs. 

Cowpeas  are  of  great  importance  in  the  South  for  economical  pork 
production.  The  seed  may  be  used  as  a  supplement  to  corn  or  other 
carbonaceous  feeds,  or  the  pigs  may  be  turned  in  to  harvest  the  crop 
when  the  pods  are  well  matured. 

Peanuts,  likewise  of  great  importance  for  pork  production  in  the 
South,  are  commonly  harvested  by  letting  the  pigs  gather  the  crop. 
Peanuts  alone  produce  soft  pork,  but  this  may  be  overcome  by  feed- 

11  Skinner  and  Cochel,  Ind.  Buls.  126,  137. 


FEEDS  FOR  SWINE  369 

ing  corn  during  the  last  part  of  the  finishing  period.  Peanuts  can  be 
grazed  during  only  a  relatively  short  season,  for  after  a  time  the  nuts 
sprout  or  rot  if  left  in  the  ground,  especially  in  wet  weather. 

Gluten  meal  and  gluten  feed  give  satisfactory  results  when  fed  with 
corn  and  some  other  supplement,  such  as  skim  milk,  tankage,  or  lin- 
seed meal.  It  is  not  advisable,  however,  to  use  these  corn  by-products 
as  the  sole  supj?lement  to  corn  for  pigs  in  the  dry  lot,  for  the  pigs 
then  receive  op  y  corn  protein,  which,  as  we  have  seen  in  Chapter  IX, 
is  somewhat  unbalanced  in  composition. 

Rice  hran  and  rice  polish  are  economical  feeds  for  pigs  in  the  rice- 
growing  districts  of  the  South,  100  lbs.  of  rice  polish  being  equal  to 
133  lbs.  of  corn,  and  100  lbs.  of  rice  bran  equalling  112  lbs.  of  corn.^^ 

III.    Forage  Crops,  Pasture,  and  Other  Succulent  Feed;  Hay 

Value  of  forage  crops  and  pasture. — Thru  the  use  of  suitable  forage 
and  pasture  crops,  pork  may  be  produced  at  a  much  lower  cost  than 
where  pigs  are  maintained  in  dry  lots  on  expensive  concentrates  alone. 
Spring  pigs  will  thrive  amazingly  on  good  pasture  supplemented  by  a 
limited  allowance  of  concentrates  and  if  not  finished  by  the  close  of  the 
pasture  season  will  be  in  condition  to  make  most  economical  gains  in 
the  dry  lot.  Not  only  do  pigs  at  pasture  make  cheaper  gains,  but  the 
succulent  feed  and  the  exercise  they  obtain  aid  in  keeping  them  thrifty 
and  healthy.  When  pigs  are  fed  in  dry  lots  it  is  difficult  to  save  the 
manure  unless  they  are  confined  closely,  and  thus  much  fertility  is 
wasted.  With  pigs  at  pasture  the  manure  is  uniformly  distributed 
on  the  fields.  By  using  forage  crops  thruout  the  growing  season  and 
legume  hay  during  the  winter  the  cost  of  maintaining  brood  sows  may 
be  materially  reduced,  Tho  pasturage  is  of  prime  value  for  pigs  in 
all  sections  of  the  country,  it  is  especially  important  in  the  southern 
states,  where,  by  a  well-selected  rotation  of  pastures,  green  feed  may 
be  furnished  nearly  the  entire  year. 

As  Evvard  of  the  Iowa  Station  ^^  writes :  An  ideal  forage  for  hogs 
should  show:  (1)  adaptability  to  local  soil  and  climate;  (2)  palatabil- 
ity;  (3)  a  heavy  yield  of  digestible  nutrients,  being  high  in  protein 
and  mineral  matter,  especially  calcium  and  phosphorus,  and  low  in 
crude  fiber;  (4)  succulence;  (5)  long  pasturing  season ;  (6)  ability  to 
endure  grazing:  (7)  permanency;  (8)  reasonable  cost  and  ease  of 
seeding ;  (9)  capability  of  furnishing  quick  pasture  at  any  time  during 
the  growing  season.  "These  essentials  are  not  found  in  any  single 
forage,  but  alfalfa,  the  clovers,  and  rape  have  most  of  them." 

Amount  of  grain  to  feed  on  pasture. — Owing  to  the  high  price  of 

12  Dvoracliek,  Arkansas  Sta.,  information  to  the  authors. 
"Iowa  Bui.  136. 


370 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


concentrates,  it  is  a  question  of  prime  importance  to  find  how  much 
of  them  should  be  fed  to  pigs  on  pasture.  It  is  never  profitable  to 
force  young  pigs  to  live  on  pasture  alone,  for  even  on  the  best  alfalfa, 
clover,  or  rape  pasture  they  barely  maintain  their  weight.  Except 
in  districts  of  the  West  where  alfalfa  is  abundant  and  grain  unusually 
high  in  price,  it  is  usually  most  profitable  to  feed  2  lbs.  or  more  of 


Fig.  104. — Alfalfa  Excels  as  a  Pasture  for  Pigs 

Where  alfalfa  thrives,  it  is  the  best  permanent  pasture  for  pigs,  on  account  of 
the  rapid  orains  it  will  produce  and  the  large  number  of  pigs  it  will  carry  per 
acre.      (From  The  Field.)' 

corn  daily  per  100  lbs.  of  pigs  than  to  feed  less,  even  when  the  pigs 
are  on  good  pasture.  Full-grown  brood  sows  not  suckling  pigs  will 
fatten  with  less  grain  while  on  pasture  than  will  growing  pigs. 

Alfalfa  pasture. — Wherever  it  thrives  alfalfa  is  the  best  perma- 
nent pasture  crop  for  pigs,  as  these  animals  do  not  bloat.  It  provides 
pasturage  during  a  longer  season  than  any  other  single  crop,  starting 
early  in  the  spring  and  remaining  green  and  succulent  in  late  sum- 
mer when  bluegrass  has  dried  up  and  even  clover  grows  hard  and 
woody.  Since  the  heavy  pasturing  of  alfalfa  is  injurious  to  the  stand, 
the  number  of  pigs  should  be  restricted  and  the  plants  allowed  to  grow 
up,  being  cut  for  hay  2  or  3  times  a  year.  In  tests  at  the  Iowa  Sta- 
tion by  Evvard  and  Kennedy  "  in  which  pigs  were  fed  corn  and  tank- 

i*Iowa  Bui.  136. 


FEEDS  FOR  SWINE  371 

age  on  alfalfa  pasture  the  alfalfa  produced  623  to  865  lbs.  of  pork 
per  acre,  after  deducting  the  gains  to  be  credited  to  the  concentrates 
fed,  and  without  crediting  the  alfalfa  with  the  hay  cut  from  the  pas- 
ture. In  one  trial  an  acre  of  alfalfa,  supplemented  by  corn  and 
tankage,  carried  an  average  of  over  16  spring  pigs  for  180  days,  pro- 
ducing 1.05  lbs.  of  gain  per  head  daily.  In  addition  nearly  2  tons 
of  hay  was  cut  per  acre  from  the  plot  during  the  season.  With  corn 
at  $0.50  per  bushel  and  tankage  at  $50  per  ton,  the  concentrates  fed 
cost  only  $3.40  per  100  lbs.  of  gain. 

Pigs  fed  corn  alone  on  alfalfa  pasture  make  fairly  satisfactory 
gains,  since  the  alfalfa  goes  far  toward  balancing  the  corn  allowance. 
More  rapid  gains  are,  however,  secured  when  some  concentrate  is  fed 
in  addition,  5  lbs.  of  tankage  to  95  lbs.  of  corn  (or  an  equivalent 
amount  of  other  supplements)  being  sufficient  for  pigs  weighing  100 
lbs.  or  over. 

Clover  pasture. — In  the  northern  and  central  states  red  clover  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  pasture  crops  for  pigs,  being  surpassed  only 
by  alfalfa  and  perhaps  by  rape.  Since  early  pasturing  may  kill 
clover,  pigs  should  not  be  turned  on  until  it  has  made  a  good  growth. 
Clover  does  not  furnish  as  constant  a  supply  of  succulent  feed  as  does 
alfalfa,  tending  to  become  woody  late  in  the  summer,  but  clipping  will 
greatly  aid  in  inducing  a  new  growth.  On  soils  too  wet  or  too  acid 
for  red  clover,  alsike  clover  may  be  grown.  Especially  in  the  south- 
eastern states  crimson  clover,  sown  as  a  winter  annual,  furnishes  valu- 
able spring  pasture  for  pigs. 

On  soils  not  well  adapted  to  alfalfa  or  red  clover,  sweet  clover  may 
often  be  used  to  advantage  as  a  pasture  for  pigs.  The  first  year's 
growth  is  best  suited  to  pigs,  as  it  is  less  coarse  and  woody.  To  en- 
courage the  growth  of  new  shoots  the  crop  should  be  pastured  reason- 
ably close  and  the  tall  growth  clipped  with  a  mower. 

Rape  pasture. — Over  the  greater  part  of  the  northern  United  States 
rape  is  unsurpassed  as  an  annual  forage  crop  for  swine.  As  it  may 
be  sown  both  early  and  late  in  the  season,  forage  may  be  provided  at 
any  desired  time.  The  best  yields  are  usually  obtained  with  spring 
seeding  and  if  the  crop  is  not  pastured  too  closely  growth  will  con- 
tinue until  fall.  Pigs  should  not  be  turned  on  the  rape  until  it  is 
10  to  14  inches  high  and  when  it  is  pastured  down  to  4  or  5  leaves  to 
the  plant  the  animals  should  be  transferred  to  another  plot  to  give 
the  crop  a  chance  to  recover.  Rape  is  often  grown  in  combination 
with  oats  or  oats  and  field  peas  for  pig  pasture. 

In  6  trials  at  corn-belt  stations  in  which  rape  pasture  was  compared 
with  alfalfa,  the  pigs  on  rape  pasture  made  practically  as  large  aver- 
age gains  as  those  on  alfalfa  pasture  and  required  only  340  lbs.  of  con- 


372 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


centrates  per  100  lbs.  of  gain,  which  was  slightly  less  than  the  pigs 
on  alfalfa  required.  Rape  is  surpassed  by  alfalfa  where  the  latter 
thrives,  not  because  alfalfa  makes  larger  gains,  but  because  it  will  usu- 
ally carry  more  pigs  per  acre  and  need  not  be  reseeded  each  year. 
Evvard  of  the  Iowa  Station  ^^  found  that  the  portion  of  the  rape  plant 
eaten  by  pigs  is  nearly  as  rich  in  protein,  on  the  dry  matter  basis,  as  is 


Fig.  105. — Rape  Is  One  of  the  Best  Annual  Crops  for  Pigs 

Over  most  of  the  northern  states,  rape  is  the  best  annual  forage  crop  for  pigs, 
furnishing  excellent  pasture  from  early  summer  till  late  in  the  Tail.  (From  Wis- 
consin Station.) 

alfalfa,  and  that  pigs  fed  corn  on  rape  pasture  do  not  need  the  addi- 
tion of  more  than  5  per  ct.  of  tankage,  or  an  equivalent  of  other  sup- 
plement, to  the  corn  allowance. 

Other  pasture  crops. — Field  peas,  sown  either  alone  or  with  oats 
or  oats  and  rape,  are  a  most  satisfactory  summer  forage  crop  for  pigs 
in  the  northern  states.  As  has  already  been  mentioned  in  this  chap- 
ter, large  numbers  of  pigs  are  fattened  on  field  peas  m  certain  moun- 
tain valleys  of  the  West. 

Soylean  pasture  in  the  North  is  surpassed  by  alfalfa,  clover,  rape, 
and  field  peas,  except  perhaps  on  light,  sandy  soil,  where  the  soybean 
may  produce  a  larger  crop.  In  the  South,  however,  the  soybean  is 
one  of  the  best  allies  of  the  pork  producer.  In  three  trials  at  the 
Alabama  Station  ^®  the  feed  cost  of  100  lbs.  gain  by  pigs  fed  corn 

16  Iowa  Bui.  136. 

!•  Gray,  Ridgeway,  and  Eudaly,  Ala.  Bui.  154. 


FEEDS  FOR  SWINE  373 

meal  on  soybean  pasture  was  only  $2.59  to  $3.36,  with  corn  at  70 
cents  per  bushel  and  soybean  pasture  at  $8  per  acre.  Soybeans  are 
often  grown  with  corn  and  the  combined  crop  hogged  down. 

Especially  on  poorer  soils  in  the  southern  states,  the  cowpea  is  an 
important  forage  crop  for  swine,  as  it  flourishes  where  other  legumes 
will  not  produce  good  crops.  Cowpeas  are  excelled  by  soybeans  where 
the  latter  thrive,  as  they  yield  more  seed.  Like  soybeans,  cowpeas 
and  corn  are  frequently  hogged  down. 

As  has  been  already  mentioned,  peanuts  are  an  important  crop  for 
fall  feeding  in  the  South.  Velvet  beans  furnish  excellent  pasture  for 
pigs  in  the  extreme  South  where  they  thrive. 

Among  the  permanent  grasses,  hluegrass  provides  the  best  pasture 
thruout  the  northern  states.  As  bluegrass  makes  little  growth  dur- 
ing mid-summer,  other  crops  should  be  provided  for  this  season,  the 
bluegrass  being  relied  on  for  grazing  in  spring  and  early  summer  and 
again  in  early  fall.  With  pigs  fed  corn«  on  bluegrass,  a  somewhat 
larger  allowance  of  protein-rich  supplements  is  needed  than  on  legume 
or  rape  pasture,  tho  very  young  bluegrass  is  fairly  rich  in  protein. 
In  the  South,  Bermuda  grass  furnishes  the  best  permanent  grass  pas- 
ture for  pigs. 

Wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  harley  are  unexcelled  for  fall  and  early 
spring  pasture  in  the  North  and  for  pasture  from  late  fall  thruout 
the  winter  and  spring  in  the  South.  Winter  rye  and  winter  oats  will 
furnish  pasture  thruout  the  entire  winter  in  the  South,  greatly  de- 
creasing the  cost  of  maintaining  brood  sows  and  raising  fall  pigs. 

Bipe  grain,  usually  rye,  bald  barley,  or  wheat,  is  frequently  hogged 
down,  the  pigs  being  turned  into  the  field  when  the  crop  is  nearly 
ripe.  This  practice  is  especially  common  in  the  grain  districts  of  the 
Pacific  Northwest,  where  the  summers  are  dry.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
it  is  generally  profitable  to  hog  down  the  small  grains  in  the  humid 
districts,  if  labor  can  be  secured  to  harvest  the  crop. 

Especially  on  grain  farms  of  the  West,  stuhhle  fields  are  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  economical  pork  production.  Where  the  grain  is  har- 
vested by  the  header,  considerable  is  left  ungarnered  and  this  was 
formerly  wasted ;  now  many  farmers  are  hog  fencing  their  fields  and 
turning  pigs  on  the  stubble  to  glean  the  scattered  heads  of  grain. 
Gains  made  on  such  waste  are  almost  clear  profit. 

Roots. — We  have  seen  in  previous  chapters  that  for  cattle  and 
sheep  silage  from  corn  and  the  sorghums  is  about  as  satisfactory  a 
succulent  feed  as  roots,  and  usually  costs  much  less.  With  pigs,  how- 
ever, silage  will  not  replace  roots,  for  they  can  not  utilize  large 
amounts  of  such  coarse,  fibrous  feeds  as  silage.  The  value  of  roots 
for  pig  feeding  is  well  shown  by  the  average  results  from  8  trials  at 


374  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

various  stations,  in  which  the  pigs  in  one  lot  were  fed  an  average  of 
5.4  lbs.  of  concentrates  per  head  daily  and  those  in  a  second  lot  3.6 
lbs.  of  concentrates  and  5.6  lbs.  of  roots.  The  pigs  given  no  roots 
required  499  lbs.  of  concentrates  for  100  lbs.  of  gain,  while  those  fed 
roots  in  addition  required  only  358  lbs.  of  concentrates  and  631  lbs.  of 
roots.  In  these  trials  each  448  lbs.  of  roots  saved  100  lbs.  of  concen- 
trates. With  the  high  prices  now  ruling  for  concentrates,  many 
farmers  can  profitably  grow  roots  for  winter  succulence  for  their  pigs. 
Danish  farmers  grow  no  Indian  corn,  and  yet,  by  means  of  waste  prod- 
ucts of  the  dairy,  purchased  feeding  stuffs,  and  root  crops,  mostly 
beets,  they  lead  the  M'orld  in  the  production  of  pork,  both  as  to  quality 
and  also  as  to  quantity,  considering  the  area  of  the  country. 

Roots  not  only  add  variety  to  the  ration  but  reduce  the  amount  of 
concentrates  required,  and  aid  in  maintaining  the  health  of  the  ani- 
mals. On  account  of  their  slightly  laxative  effect  and  their  bulkiness, 
roots  are  especially  valuable  for  brood  sows  in  winter.  As  they  tend 
to  growth  rather  than  fattening,  they  are  also  excellent  for  young 
pigs.  Indeed,  in  finishing  pigs  the  allowance  of  roots  should  be  re- 
stricted, or  the  desired  finish  will  not  be  secured.  For  fall  feeding, 
root  crops  may  be  gathered  economically  by  turning  pigs  in  to  graze 
the  field. 

The  relative  feeding  value  of  the  various  root  crops  depends  on  the 
amount  of  dry  matter  they  yield  per  acre  in  any  particular  locality. 
According  to  Day,^^  sugar  beets  are  most  readily  eaten  by  pigs,  man- 
gels ranking  second  in  palatability. 

Potatoes  should  be  cooked  for  pigs  and  fed  with  concentrates,  pro- 
tein-rich feeds  being  included  in  the  ration.  In  various  trials  340  to 
442  lbs.  of  potatoes  have  saved  100  lbs.  of  grain. 

Sweet  potatoes  are  an  excellent  root  crop  for  fall  and  early  winter 
feeding  in  the  South,  especially  for  the  cut-over  pine  lands.  Planted 
in  June  and  early  July,  they  are  ready  for  feeding  by  the  middle  of 
October.  Since  the  tubers  are  low  in  protein,  pigs  grazing  sweet  po- 
tatoes should  be  given  such  feeds  as  soybeans  or  cowpeas. 

Silage. — Clover,  alfalfa,  or  other  legume  hay  is  generally  more  sat- 
isfactory for  pigs  than  silage  of  any  kind.  Corn  silage  is  too  woody 
and  too  low  in  digestible  matter  to  be  valuable  for  swine.  If  shotes 
and  breeding  stock  live  on  a  limited  allowance  of  rich  concentrates 
alone,  they  may  suffer  from  lack  of  proper  bulk  in  the  ration.  In 
such  cases,  if  roots  or  legume  hay  are  not  available,  even  corn  silage 
will  be  helpful  in  distending  the  digestive  tract. 

The  legume  hays. — With  the  prices  of  feeding  stuffs  ruling  high, 
the  swine  feeder  must  make  the  largest  possible  use  of  alfalfa,  clover, 

1"  Productive  Swine  Husbandry,  p.  206. 


FEEDS  FOR  SWINE 


375 


vetch,  cowpea,  soybean,  and  other  legume  pasture  in  summer,  and  in 
winter  feed  freely  of  well  cured  hay  from  the  legumes,  in  order  to 
have  healthy  animals  and  to  keep  down  the  cost  of  production.  The 
finer  parts  of  clover  and  alfalfa  hay,  especially  the  first  cutting  of 
clover  and  the  last  cutting  of  alfalfa,  are  often  as  valuable  for  feed- 
ing pigs  as  is  the  same  weight  of  expensive  wheat  middlings.  The 
southern  planter  has  a  specially  choice  list  of  equally  valuable  legumes 
in  the  cowpea,  soybean,  velvet  bean,  peanut,  etc.    Legume  hay  may 


r 

Fig.  106. — Brood  Sows  Eatixg  At>falfa  Hay  FKO^r  Uacks 

Fine.  Avell-cured  legume  hay  should  be  provided  for  all  brood  sows  and  may 
often  be  used  with  profit  for  other  pigs.      (From  Breeder's  Gazette.) 

be  fed  to  pigs  from  slatted  racks  or  from  boxes  with  openings  low  on 
the  sides  from  which  the  animals  can  eat  at  will.  The  legume  hays 
not  only  furnish  protein,  so  essential  for  building  all  the  lean  meat 
tissues  and  the  organs  of  the  body,  but  they  also  carry  much  calcium 
(lime),  which  is  needed  in  bone  building.  They  are  therefore  doubly 
useful  in  supplementing  Indian  corn  and  the  other  cereals,  which  are 
rather  poor  in  both  protein  and  calcium. 

Leafy,  bright  alfalfa  hay  is  the  best  of  all  hays  for  the  pig.  Not 
only  is  this  hay  useful  for  brood  sows  and  stock  pigs  but  it  is  a  cheap 
and  fairly  efficient  supplement  to  corn  or  the  other  cereals  for  fatten- 
ing pigs.  While  fattening  cattle  and  sheep  will  consume  enough 
alfalfa  hay  to  make  a  fairly  well  balanced  ration  with  corn,  the  fat- 


376  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

lening  pig  has  not  this  capacity  for  roughage,  and  hence  will  not  con- 
sume enough  hay  to  balance  his  ration  sufficiently  to  produce  maxi- 
mum gains.  For  example,  in  trials  at  the  Kansas  Station  ^^  pigs  fed 
a  ration  of  6.6  lbs.  of  corn  and  0.9  lb,  tankage  gained  1.58  lbs.  per 
head  daily,  while  others  fed  6.5  lbs.  corn  and  1.2  lbs.  alfalfa  hay  in  a 
rack  gained  only  1.13  lbs.  With  corn  at  $19,  alfalfa  hay  at  $8,  and 
tankage  at  $41  to  $45  per  ton,  the  pigs  fed  tankage  made  cheaper 
gains  than  those  fed  alfalfa  hay. 

On  the  other  hand,  with  corn  and  barlej^  at  $20,  tankage  at  $40,  and 
alfalfa  hay  at  $5  per  ton,  the  Colorado  Station  ^^  found  alfalfa  a  much 
more  economical  supplement  than  tankage.  Whether  to  use  alfalfa 
hay  or  purchased  concentrates  to  balance  the  ration  of  fattening  pigs 
will  therefore  depend  on  the  relative  price  of  these  feeds.  Alfalfa 
hay  is  most  efficient  as  a  supplement  in  fine  winter  weather  when  the 
pigs  have  good  appetites  for  the  hay"  and  corn.  In  unfavorable 
weather  or  when  the  pigs  are  out  of  condition  the  use  of  some  nitroge- 
nous concentrate,  like  tankage,  linseed  meal,  or  shorts,  aids  in  stimu- 
lating the  appetite  and  hence  results  in  larger  gains. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  the  results  of  feeding  trials  in  which  corn  has  been  fed  alone  and 
with  a  supplement  to  pigs. 

2.  Discuss  the  hogging  down  of  corn. 

3.  Wliat  is  the  value  for  pigs  of  wheat,  rye,  oats,  emmer,  the  grain  sorgliums, 
millet,  liominy  feed? 

4.  What  is  the  best  supplement  to  corn  from  the  standpoint  of  gains  pro- 
duced ? 

5.  How  much  skim  milk  would  you  feed  per  pound  of  corn  to  pigs  of  various 
weights  ? 

6.  \Yhat  is  the  value  of  buttermilk  and  whey  for  pigs? 

7.  How  much  tankage  is  needed  to  balance  the  ration  of  corn-fed  pigs? 

8.  Discuss  the  value  for  pigs  of  the  other  protein-rich  concentrates  fed  to 
swine  in  your  locality. 

9.  Name  9  essentials  of  a  good  forage  crop  for  pigs. 

10.  What  are  the  best  forage  crops  for  swine  in  your  locality,  and  why  are 
they  the  best? 

11.  Discuss  the  value  of  roots  and  of  silage  for  swine. 

12.  How  may  legume  hay  be  used  in  swine  feeding? 

IS  Waters  and  Kinzer,  Kan.  Bui.   19i 
19  Morton,  Colo.  Bui.  188. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  POULTRY 


Poultry  husbandry  is  a  generalized  latlier  than  a  specialized  indus- 
try, for  no  other  class  of  live  stock  is  kept  so  widely,  yet  relatively  few 
rely  upon  poultry  raising  for  their  main  income.  Both  on  the  farm 
and  on  the  city  lot  poultry  consume  much  waste  material,  converting 
it  into  highly  nutritious  and  palatable  eggs  and  meat.  On  the  farm, 
poultry  occupy  a  distinctive  place,  for  a  fair-sized  flock  may  be  kept 
to  a  considerable  extent  on  land  occupied  by  crops.  Here  they  will  not 
only  gain  much  free  food,  but  they  will  also  benefit  the  crops  by  devour- 
ing injurious  bugs,  grubs,  and  worms.  They  are  largely  cared  for 
by  the  women  and  children,  and  thus  do  not  compete  for  labor  with 
other  lines  of  farming.  General  conditions  are  highly  favorable  for 
the  farm  flock  of  moderate  size,  even  tho  the  feeding  and  care  often 
receive  little  attention.  Range  is 
abundant,  numerous  buildings  and 
trees  provide  protection  from  sun 
and  wind,  and  epidemics  of  disease 
are  much  less  serious  than  where 
large  numbers  of  birds  are  kept 
under  intensive  conditions.  It  is 
due  to  these  advantages  of  the  farm 
flock  that  most  of  the  spectacular, 
large  scale  poultry  enterprises  have 
failed. 

In  the  economy  with  which  she 
produces  human  food,  the  hen 
ranks  next  to  the  pig,  as  is  shown 
in  Chapter  V.  She  returns  5.1  lbs. 
of  edible  solids  (water-free)  in 
eggs  or  4.2  lbs.  in  meat  from  100  lbs 
When  poultry  are  kept  as  a  side-line,  their  economic  efficiency  is 
really  greater  than  these  figures  indicate,  because  a  large  part  of  their 
food  is  material  that  would  otherwise  be  wasted. 

Importance  of  poultry. — Under  the  term  poultry  are  included  fowls, 
turkevs,  ducks,  geese,  swan,  guineas,  pigeons,  peafowl,  and  pheasants, 

377 


Fig.  107.- 


-A  Brood  of  Profit 
Makers 


Chicks  make  use  of  many  waste 
products  and  may  be  easily  raised  on 
the  farm  or  on  a  city  lot.  (From 
Halpin,  Wisconsin,  Station.) 

of  digestible  matter  in  her  ration. 


378  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

In  aggregate  value  the  annual  yield  of  poultry  and  eggs  in  the  United 
States  amounts  to  $750,000,000,  exceeding  the  value  of  all  the  gold, 
silver,  iron,  and  coal  mined  annually  in  this  country.  According  to 
the  Census  of  1910,  over  88  per  ct.  of  all  the  farms  reported  flocks  of 
poultry,  the  average  farm  income  from  poultry  for  these  farms  being 
$105,  in  addition  to  the  eggs  and  meat  consumed  on  the  farm.  The 
value  of  the  eggs  produced  in  this  country  amounts  to  about  twice  as 
much  as  the  value  of  the  meat. 

Of  the  total  number  of  poultry  in  the  United  States,  about  95  per  ct. ' 
are  chickens,  about  4  per  ct.  ducks,  turkeys,  and  geese,  and  the  remain- 
ing 1  per  ct.  guineas,  pigeons,  pheasants,  and  other  domestic  birds. 
Because  of  their  importance,  the  following  discussions  deal  al- 
most entirely  with  chickens.  The  popularity  of  chickens  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  they  are  usually  much  better  egg  producers  than  the  other 
species  and  that  they,  moreover,  furnish  a  most  convenient  source  of 
fresh  meat  on  the  farm. 

The  digestive  system  of  poultry.— The  digestive  tract  of  poultry  is 
quite  different  from  those  of  the  larger  farm  animals.  Poultry  have 
no  teeth  with  which  to  chew  their  food,  the  teeth  and  lips  being  replaced 
by  a  horny  mandible  on  each  jaw,  which  forms  the  beak,  or  bill.  Such 
soft  feeds  as  vegetables,  green  herbage,  or  meat  can  be  torn  into  pieces 
by  the  beak,  but  hard  substances  like  grain  are  swallowed  whole.  Since 
no  chewing  is  done  in  the  mouth,  abundant  saliva  is  not  needed  and 
the  salivary  glands  are  imperfectly  developed. 

From  the  mouth  the  food  is  forced  down  the  gullet  into  the  crop,  a 
pouch-like  enlargement  of  the  gullet  just  before  it  enters  the  body 
cavity.  No  enzymes  are  secreted  in  the  crop,  but  the  feed  is  softened 
as  in  the  paunch  of  ruminants,  such  hard  materials  as  grain  remaining 
in  the  crop  about  12  hours.  From  the  crop  the  food  passes  thru  the 
second  part  of  the  gullet  into  the  glandular  stomach,  where  the  gastric 
juice  is  secreted.  Passing  thru  the  glandular  stomach,  the  food,  with 
the  acid  gastric  juice,  enters  the  gizzard,  or  muscular  stomach.  This 
is  a  powerful,  muscular  grinding  apparatus,  with  a  tough,  horny  lining, 
and  in  it  the  food  is  finely  ground  with  the  aid  of  small  stones  and 
grit.  The  gizzard  has  a  truly  remarkable  grinding  and  crushing 
power,  being  able  to  bend  pieces  of  iron  and  wear  smooth  the  edges  of 
pieces  of  broken  glass. 

From  the  gizzard  the  partially  digested  food  passes  into  the  small 
intestine,  in  which  the  digestive  processes  are  similar  to  those  in  the 
other  farm  animals.  The  large  intestine  in  poultry  has  but  small  ca- 
pacity. It  consists  of  a  small  rectum  and  two  caeca,  or  blind  guts,  at 
the  juncture  of  the  small  intestine  and  the  rectum.  A  further  pecu- 
liarity of  poultry  is  that  the  urine  and  feces  are  not  voided  separately, 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  POULTRY 


379 


LOWta  MANDIBLE 
TONGUE 


OPENING  TO  TRACHEA 


MUSCLES  CONTROLLING 
TONGUE 


OPENING  INTOGULLET 


GLANDULAR 
STOMACH 


GALL-BLAODEB. 
BILE  DUCT 


PANCREAS 
DUODENAL  LOOP 


Fig.  108. — The  Digestive  System  of  the  Fowl 

Tlie  digestive  system  of  the  fowl  differs  in  several  respects  from  those  of  the 
larger  farm  animals.      (From  Lippinoott,  Poultry  Production.) 

but  both  are  excreted  thru  a  common  chamber,  the  cloaca.  Most  of 
the  water  in  the  urine  is  reabsorbed  in  the  cloaca,  and  the  urine  is 
voided  as  a  whitish  paste  with  the  feces.  The  nitrogenous  waste  is 
excreted  chiefly  in  the  form  of  uric  acid,  instead  of  as  urea,  as  with 
mammals. 

Nowhere  in  the  digestive  tract  of  poultry  does  much  digestion  of 


380  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

crude  fiber  take  place.  The  food  remains  in  the  crop  too  short  d 
time  for  any  appreciable  digestion  there  thru  bacterial  action,  such  as 
occurs  in  the  paunch  of  ruminants,  and  little  bacterial  action  takes 
place  in  the  large  intestine.  Due  to  this,  crude  fiber  has  little  value  for 
poultry,  but  serves  simply  to  give  bulk  to  the  ration.  Hence,  the  feed 
of  poultry  must  be  more  concentrated  in  character  than  that  for  other 
farm  stock. 

Digestibility  of  feeds  by  poultry. — Since  the  urine  is  not  voided  sep- 
arately by  poultry,  digestion  trials  can  not  be  conducted  satisfactorily 
in  the  same  manner  as  with  other  animals.  In  general,  the  digestibility 
of  feeds  by  poultry  resembles  that  of  swine,  tho  poultry  digest  even 
less  fiber.  The  digestibility  of  grain  for  poultry  is  not  increased  by 
grinding,  as  all  seeds  are  ground  fine  in  the  gizzard,  if  grit  is  available. 

Feeding  standards  and  nutrient  requirements  of  poultry. — Owing 
to  the  fact  that  satisfactory  digestion  coefficients  have  not  been  obtained 
for  poultry,  our  knowledge  of  their  actual  nutrient  requirements  is 
less  definite  than  for  other  classes  of  stock.  Wheeler  of  the  New 
York  (Geneva)  Station  ^  has  presented  the  most  complete  standards 
which  have  yet  been  advanced.  These,  converted  to  the  same  terms 
as  the  Modified  Wolff'-Lehmann  Standards,  are  given  in  Appendix 
Table  V.  It  will  be  noted  that  poultry  require  a  much  larger  amount 
of  nutrients  per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight  than  do  the  other  farm  animals. 
This  is  due  to  their  small  size  and  the  consequent  greater  radiation 
of  heat  from  the  body,  and  to  their  high  body  temperature  and  great 
activity.  No  figures  are  given  for  the  amount  of  total  dry  matter, 
but,  as  mentioned  previously,  on  account  of  the  nature  of  their  diges- 
tive tract,  rations  for  poultry  must  be  more  concentrated  than  for 
other  stock,  even  swine. 

The  nutritive  ratios  recommended  for  growing  chicks  and  for  lay- 
ing hens  are  narrower  than  for  nearly  all  other  classes  of  farm  animals. 
This  is  because  chicks  and  other  young  poultry  grow  very  rapidly  in 
proportion  to  their  size  and  hence  store  large  amounts  of  protein 
in  their  bodies.  Laying  hens  require  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio  be- 
cause they  are  yielding  a  product  very  high  in  protein.  Eggs  con- 
tain about  65.9  per  ct.  water,  12.8  per  ct.  crude  protein,  10.6  per 
ct.  fat,  and  10.7  per  ct.  mineral  matter.  The  protein  thus  forms 
about  38  per  ct.  of  the  total  dry  matter.  On  account  of  these  facts, 
rations  for  growing  and  laying  poultry  should  contain  a  rather 
larger  proportion  of  protein-rich  feeds  than  for  other  farm  animals. 
For  fattening  poultry  less  protein  is  needed  and  the  nutritive  ratio 
may  range  from  about  1 :  6.2  for  young  birds  which  are  still  growing 
to  1:8  for  mature  poultry. 

1  Jordan,  The  Feeding  of  Animals,  pp.  303-5. 


FEEDING  AND  CAKE  OF  POULTRY  381 

Mineral  matter. — The  shells  of  eggs,  which  comprise  about  11  per  ct. 
of  their  total  weight,  consist  almost  entirely  of  calcium  carbonate 
(carbonate  of  lime).  Laying  hens  must  therefore  have  a  supply  of 
calcium  in  addition  to  that  furnished  in  the  grains  and  other  common 
feeds.  Trials  by  Halpin  -  at  the  Wisconsin  Station  show  that  calcium 
is  as  important  as  any  other  part  of  the  ration.  Hens  produced  but 
few  eggs  when  fed  rations  excellent  for  egg  production  except  that 
they  were  deficient  in  calcium.  When  plenty  of  calcium  was  supplied 
a  normal  yield  of  eggs  was  secured. 

Oyster  shells  are  the  best  form  in  which  to  supply  calcium.  They 
should  be  placed  in  hoppers  or  boxes  in  the  poultry  house  so  that  the 
fowls  can  help  themselves.  Clam  shells,  sometimes  used  in  place 
of  oyster  shells,  are  not  considered  as  good.  Growing  chicks  require 
an  abundant  supply  of  both  calcium  and  phosphorus  for  the  building 
of  their  skeletons  and  body  tissues.  Therefore,  unless  the  feeding 
stutt's  of  the  ration  furnish  an  abundance  of  these  mineral  nutrients, 
they  should  be  supplied  by  giving  some  form  of  bone.  Granulated 
hone  and  hone  meal  are  most  commonly  used.  Green  cut  bone,  dis- 
cussed in  the  following  chapter,  furnishes  both  mineral  matter  and 
protein.  Trials  at  the  New  York  (Geneva)  ^  and  Rhode  Island  *  Sta- 
tions indicate  that  ground  bone  is  a  better  source  of  these  minerals 
than  is  rock  phosphate. 

Grit,  or  crushed  rock,  should  also  be  supplied  poultry  to  aid  in  the 
grinding  of  feed  in  the  gizzard,  unless  they  have  access  to  plenty  of 
coarse  sand  or  fine  gravel.  Several  kinds  of  rock  are  crushed  for  grit, 
the  best  form  being  a  light-colored  lime  rock.  Commercial  grits  are 
commonly  furnished  in  chick  size,  medium,  and  large  size. 

Animal  food.— Trials  at  various  stations  indicate  that  for  the  best 
results  poultry  should  receive  animal  food  of  some  kind.  When  given 
abundant  range  in  summer  they  secure  it  in  the  form  of  bugs,  grubs, 
and  worms.  Opportunity  for  range  has  a  two-fold  advantage,  for  in 
addition  to  the  free  animal  food,  the  poultry  destroy  insects  which 
would  damage  crops.  Whenever  the  insect  and  worm  supply  runs 
short,  one  of  the  substitutes  discussed  in  the  following  chapter  should 
always  be  provided. 

Salt;  water.— Salt  is  needed  by  poultry  as  well  as  by  other  stock 
and  therefore  a  small  amount  should  be  added  to  the  mash.  Wheeler  ^ 
recommends  5  ounces  per  100  lbs.  of  feed  for  mature  stock  but  ad- 
vises that  young  stock  be  given  no  salt  until  2  months  old. 

2  Information  to  the  authors. 

3  Wheeler,  N.  Y.   (Geneva)   Bui.  242. 
4Hartwell  and  Kirkpatrick,  R.  I.  Bui.  145. 
5N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Ept.  26. 


382 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABKIDGED 


A  constant  supply  of  fresh,  clean  water  is  an  essential  for  all  classes 
of  poultry.  The  watering  arrangement  should  be  so  constructed  that 
the  birds  will  not  roost  upon  it  and  foul  the  water  with  their  drop-' 
pings,  and  should  be  high  enough  to  prevent  litter  being  scratched 

into  it.  For  chicks  a  vacuum  foun- 
tain is  desirable.  The  simplest 
form  of  such  a  fountain  is  simply 
a  jar  filled  with  water  and  inverted 
on  a  pan  of  water.  As  the  chicks 
drink  the  water  from  the  pan,  air 
enters  the  jar  and  water  flows  out 
into  the  pan  until  the  water  level 
rises. 

Charcoal  and  condiments. — A 
supply  of  charcoal,  sold  on  the  mar- 
ket as  granulated  charcoal,  should 
be  kept  before  poultry  as  it  acts  as 
a  regulator  of  the  digestive  tract. 
The  use  of  such  condiments  as  pep- 
per, ginger,  and  mustard  is  not  to 
be  recommended  for  poultry. 

Shelter. — There  is  no  need  of 
building  an  elaborate,  expensive 
house  for  poultry,  but  to  be  healthy 
and  profitable  the  farm  flock  needs 
dry,  well-ventilated,  well-lighted 
quarters,  free  from  drafts.  Fowls 
have  no  sweat  glands  and  suffer 
from  too  close  and  warm  quarters 
even  more  than  do  other  animals. 
It  is  important  that  the  house  be  easy  to  disinfect.  Hence,  all  the 
fixtures — nests,  perches,  coops  for  broody  hens,  feed  hoppers,  etc. — 
should  be  simple  and  removable.  A  dropping  board  below  the  perches 
is  desirable.  So  that  they  will  have  plenty  of  room  for  exercise,  at 
least  4  square  feet  of  flo^r  space  should  be  allowed  each  hen,  and  6  to 
10  inches  of  roost  space,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  fowls.  Venti- 
lating systems,  such  as  the  King,  which  depend  on  the  difference  in 
weight  between  heated  and  cold  air,  do  not  work  well  in  poultry  houses, 
because  there  is  too  much  cubic  space  per  100  lbs.  live  weight  of  fowls 
to  warm  the  air  enough.  For  ventilation,  the  poultryman  must  rely 
on  having  part  of  the  windows  protected  only  by  muslin  or  by  open 
Klats,  or  left  entirely  open  as  in  the  ''open  front"  house.  The  house 
should  be  well-bedded  with  straw  which  is  renewed  when  it  becomes 


Fig.  109. — Interior  of  Continu- 
ous  Poultry    House   at 
Wisconsin  Station 

This  house  is  sunny,  well-lighted, 
well -ventilated,  dry,  and  free  from 
drafts.  Note  the  shelf  on  which 
stand  water  crock  and  self  feeders  for 
grit  and  dry  mash.  (From  Halpin, 
Wisconsin   Station.) 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  POULTRY  383 

damp  or  filthy.  Two  or  three  times  a  year  the  house  and  all  fixtures 
should  be  thoroly  disinfected. 

The  quarters  should  be  located  on  well-drained  soil,  and  preferably 
on  a  south  slope,  an  east  slope  being  next  best.  The  site  should  have 
good  air  drainage  and  have  ample  range  adjacent.  Trees  near  the 
house  provide  summer  shade  and  keep  out  the  wind.  Fowls  also  ap- 
preciate some  low  shrubbery  nearby  under  which  they  may  hide. 

Poultry  houses  are  of  three  types:  (1)  The  portable  colony  house 
with  a  single  pen,  (2)  the  long,  continuous  house  of  two  or  more  pens, 
and  (3)  the  large,  single-unit  house.  The  permanent  house  has  cer- 
tain advantages  for  housing  the  flock  in  winter  in  the  northern  states, 
but  on  every  farm  where  a  good-sized  flock  is  kept  there  should  be 
at  least  one  portable  colony  house.  In  this  the  young  stock  may  be 
reared  on  the  range  and  later  the  pullets  be  kept  apart  so  that  they 
will  not  be  abused  by  the  older  fowls. 

Preparation  of  feed;  dry  and  wet  mash. — It  has  been  pointed  out 
previously  that  grinding  grain  does  not  increase  its  digestibility  for 
poultry.  However,  poultrymen  have  found  it  profitable  to  feed  fowls 
about  one-third  of  the  ration  ground  In  the  form  of  a  "mash,"  as 
this  saves  the  birds  considerable  energy.  The  rest  of  the  ration  com- 
monly consists  of  grain,  fed  whole,  except  in  the  case  of  corn,  which 
is  often  cracked  coarsely.  The  grain  is  usually  thrown  on  the  straw 
used  for  bedding  the  house,  where  the  fowls  must  scratch  to  secure  it, 
thus  getting  ample  exercise.  Feeding  the  mash  dry  in  self-feeding 
hoppers  saves  labor  and  gives  the  best  results  except  for  fattening 
fowls,  which  may  be  induced  to  eat  more  if  the  mash  is  moistened  and 
fed  in  a  trough.  It  is  well,  for  variety,  to  give  all  fowls  a  wet  mash 
three  times  a  week,  perhaps  made  of  the  same  feeds  that  make  up  the 
dry  mash  but  moistened  with  water  or  milk.  For  chickens  a  wet  mash 
should  be  crumbly  and  not  sticky. 

Green  feeds. — Some  green  food  is  essential  for  the  best  results  with 
poultry.  The  value  of  these  feeds  lies  not  so  much  in  the  nutrients 
they  furnish  as  in  the  stimulating  effect  on  the  appetite  and  on  the 
digestive  tract.  Where  poultry  have  plenty  of  range,  they  will  secure 
an  abundance  of  green  feed  during  the  growing  season.  Successful 
poultrymen  agree  that  provision  should  be  made  to  continue  the  sup- 
ply of  green  feed  thruout  the  winter.  Where  little  or  no  range 
is  available  in  spring  and  summer,  soilage  or  pasture  crops  should 
be  specially  grown. 

Types  of  fowls. — Two  classifications  may  be  followed  in  grouping 
the  various  breeds  of  fowls:  (1)  the  so-called  "standard"  classifica- 
tion of  the  American  Poultry  Association,  which  is  based  primarily 
upon  the  origin  and  distribution  of  the  breeds,  and  (2)  the  utility 


384  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

classification,  which  is  based  upon  the  suitability  of  the  breeds  for 
the  production  of  eggs  and  meat.  According  to  the  latter  classifica- 
tion," the  breeds  are  grouped  as  follows:  (1)  egg  breeds;  (2)  meat 
breeds;  (3)  general-purpose  breeds;  (4)  fancy  breeds. 

The  egg  breeds,  developed  primarily  for  egg  production,  are  small 
or  -medium-sized  fowls,  active,  nervous  and  sprightly,  slender  in  body, 
relatively  long-legged,  and  early  maturing.  These  breeds  do  best  on 
ample  range  and  show  the  least  tendency  to  sit  of  any  type.  They 
may  be  compared  to  the  dairy  cow,  the  racing  horse,  and  the  fine- 
wooled  sheep.  Breeds  of  this  type  belong  chiefly  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean class,  so  named  because  they  originated  in  Elediterranean  coun- 
tries. All  lay  eggs  white  in  color.  B}^  far  the  most  important  breeds 
of  this  type  in  the  United  States  are  the  Leghorns,  followed  by  the 
Minorcas  and  Anconas. 

The  meat  breeds  are  comparable  to  beef  cattle,  draft  horses,  mut- 
ton sheep,  and  lard  hogs.  They  are  relatively  large  in  size,  compact, 
thickly  fleshed,  wide  of  back  and  breast,  and  late  maturing.  The  most 
important  breeds  of  this  type  in  the  United  States  are  the  Brahmas  and 
Cornish. 

The  general-purpose  breeds  are  the  most  common  on  American 
farms.  Midway  between  the  other  two  types  in  shape  and  disposition, 
they  yield  good  carcasses  for  the  table  and  are  fair  to  excellent  layers. 
At  the  same  time  they  make  good  mothers.  This  type  includes  both 
the  American  and  the  English  classes.  The  most  important  breeds  of 
the  former  are  the  Plymoutli  Rocks,  the  Wyandottes  and  the  Rhode 
Island  Reds;  while  the  Orpingtons  and  Sussex  are  the  most  impor- 
tant representatives  of  the  English  class.  The  general-purpose 
breeds  furnish  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  poultry  meat  consumed  in 
this  country. 

The  fancy  breeds  include  breeds  and  varieties  kept  mainly  for  ex- 
hibition purposes,  such  as  the  Polish,  Bantams,  Silkies,  and  Frizzles. 

Feeding  laying-  hens. — To  secure  a  high  egg  production,  it  is  essen- 
tial that  a  complete,  well-balanced  ration,  containing  grain,  mash,  ani- 
mal feed,  green  feed,  shell,  and  grit,  be  fed.  About  50  per  ct.  of  the 
ration  should  be  grain,  20  per  ct.  mash  (not  including  animal  feed 
sometimes  mixed  Avith  the  mash),  10  per  ct.  animal  feed,  15  per  ct. 
green  feed,  and  5  per  ct.  mineral  feed.  As  in  feeding  other  classes 
of  stock,  successful  poultrymen  differ  quite  widely  in  the  exact  routine 
followed  in  feeding. 

Commonly  a  short  time  after  the  birds  are  off  the  perch  in  the  morn- 
ing a  light  feed  of  grain  is  scattered  on  the  straw  with  which  the  pen 
is  littered,  and  is  well  kiclied  in,  to  make  the  birds  work  in  securing 

6  Lewis,  Productive  Poultry  Husbandry,  p.  78. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  POULTRY  385 

a  meal.  A  heavy  feed  of  grain  is  given  on  the  litter  two  or  three  hours 
before  the  fowls  go  to  roost,  so  that  they  will  go  on  the  perch  with 
full  crops.  The  birds  should  be  examined  occasionally  after  they  have 
gone  to  roost  to  see  whether  they  have  enough  grain.  At  night  it  is 
better  to  feed  a  little  more  than  will  be  eaten  than  not  to  feed  enough. 
However,  the  morning  feed  must  be  light  enough  so  that  the  grain  will 
be  entirely  cleaned  out  of  the  litter  before  the  afternoon  feeding. 

The  dry  mash  should  be  supplied  in  self-feeding  hoppers,  to  which 
the  fowls  may  be  allowed  free  access  at  all  times,  except  in  the  case  of 
the  meat  breeds.  As  these  tend  to  overeat,  the  hoppers  should  be  kept 
closed  during  the  forenoon.  The  green  feed  is  commonly  given  at 
noon,  as  much  being  supplied  as  will  be  eaten  in  20  to  30  minutes. 
For  variety,  it  is  well  to  feed  a  mash  moistened  with  milk  or  water 
about  three  times  a  week  in  a  trough.  Fresh  water  should  be  given  in 
the  morning,  at  noon,  and  also  at  the  afternoon  feeding,  except  in  cold 
weather. 

In  spring  and  summer  plenty  of  range  should  be  provided,  if  pos- 
sible, so  that  the  fowls  will  not  only  have  plenty  of  green  feed  but  may 
also  secure  most  of  the  animal  feed  they  need  in  the  form  of  insects 
and  worms.  No  special  precaution  need  be  taken  then  to  enforce  ex- 
ercise, for  the  fowls  will  be  busy  all  day  hunting  for  choice  morsels. 
On  good  range,  the  amount  of  additional  animal  feed  supplied  may 
be  reduced  materially.  When  ample  range  is  not  available,  some  of 
the  green  feeds  discussed  in  the  next  chapter  should  be  specially  grown 
for  the  flock. 

Good  laying  rations  for  winter. — As  is  shown  in  the  following 
chapter,  which  discusses  in  detail  all  the  important  feeds  used  for 
poultry,  the  poultryman  has  chance  for  a  wide  selection  in  devising 
rations  for  his  flock.  From  the  available  feeds  he  should  choose  those 
which  will  provide  a  well-balanced,  satisfactory  ration  at  least  cost. 
Tho  the  particular  combinations  of  feeds  employed  will  differ  widely 
in  different  sections  of  the  country,  the  following  rations,  recom- 
mended by  Halpin,  will  be  suggestive,  as  they  have  all  given  good  re- 
sults. 

Ration  1. — Feed  in  deep  litter  a  mixture  of  2  parts  each  by  weight  of  corn  and 
wheat  and  1  part  each  of  oats  and  barley  (a  light  feed  in  the  morning  and  a 
heavy  one  at  night). 

Feed  in  hopper  (all  the  time)  a  mixture  of  100  lbs.  each  of  wheat  bran,  wheat 
middlings,  and  ground  corn;  50  lbs.  each  of  dry  malt  sprouts  and  meat  scraps; 
and  2  lbs.  of  salt. 

Feed  in  trough  (3  times  a  week)  the  same  mixture,  moistened  with  milk. 

Green  feed — sprouted  oats  and  mangels. 

Grit,  oyster  shell,  and  charcoal,  supplied  in  small  boxes  or  grit  hoppers. 

Water — fresh  and  in  abundance. 


386  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Ration  2. — Feed  in  deep  litter  a  mixture  of  2  parts  each  of  corn  and  wheat 
and  1  of  barley   ( a  light  feed  in  the  morning  and  a  heavy  one  at  night ) . 

Feed  in  hopper  (all  the  time)  crushed  oats. 

Feed  in  trough  (3  times  a  week)  a  moist  mash  of  equal  parts  bran  and  corn 
meal.     Salt  slightly. 

Milk — sour  milk  or  buttermilk  to  drink. 

Green  feed;  grit;  oyster  shell;  charcoal;  and  water  as  in  Ration  1. 

Ration  3. — Feed  in  deep  litter  a  mi.xture  of  2  parts  each  of  corn  and  wheat 
and  1  of  oats   (a  light  feed  in  the  morning  and  a  heavy  one  at  night). 

Feed  in  hopper  a  mixture  of  100  lbs.  each  of  wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings, 
corn  meal,  and  meat  scrap,  with  2  lbs.  salt.  (Let  the  hens  eat  this  when  they 
wish.) 

Green  feed;  grit;  oyster  shell;  charcoal;  and  icater  as  in  Ration  1. 

Ration  4. — Feed  in  deep  litter  a  mixture  of  4  parts  corn,  2  parts  wheat  and 
1  part  oats   (a  light  feed  in  the  morning  and  a  heavy  one  at  night). 

Feed  in  hopper  a  mixture  of  200  lbs.  wheat  bran,  100  lbs.  ground  corn,  100  lbs. 
gluten  feed,  75  lbs.  oil  meal,  and  3  lbs.  salt. 

Feed  in  trough   (3  times  a  week)  the  same  mixture,  moistened  with  milk. 

Milk  to  drink,  or  add  50  lbs.  meat  scrap,  or  give  meat  scrap  in  small  hopper, 
or  give  3  ounces  green  bone  to  each  hen  per  week. 

Green  feed;  grit;  oyster  shell;  and  charcoal  as  in  Ration  1. 

Ration  5  (known  as  the  Wisconsin  simplicity  ration). — Feed  in  deep  litter 
only  corn  (a  light  feed  in  the  morning  and  a  heavy  one  at  night). 

Milk — sour  milk  before  the  flock  at  all  times,  no  water. 

Green  feed;  grit;  oyster  shells;  and  charcoal  as  in  Ration  1. 

On  extremely  cold  days  heat  ear  corn  on  the  back  of  the  stove,  break  into  small 
pieces,  and  feed  on  the  cob  early  enough  so  that  the  hens  have  a  chance  to  pick 
ofT  all  they  want  before  they  go  to  bed. 

The  eggJ — In  several  respects  an  egg  is  similar  to  a  grain,  siicli  as 
a  kernel  of  corn.  In  each  there  is  a  germ,  from  which  the  new  life 
develops,  and  each  contains  food  for  the  nourishment  of  this  germ.  In 
the  grain  the  stored  food  material  is  starch,  fat,  and  protein,  while  in 
the  egg  the  nutriment  is  stored  in  the  form  of  protein  and  fat.  While 
the  grain  must  absorb  much  water  for  germination,  the  egg  contains 
sufficient  for  its  own  development.  Moreover,  a  much  higher  tempera- 
ture is  required  for  the  hatching  of  the  egg  than  for  the  germination 
of  a  seed. 

An  egg  consists  of  five  parts :  (1)  the  shell ;  (2)  the  shell  membrane ; 
(3)  the  albumin;  (4)  the  yolk;  and  (5)  the  germ.  The  shell,  consist- 
ing of  3  layers,  makes  up  from  10  to  11  per  ct.  of  the  weight  of  the 
entire  egg.  It  is  composed  chiefly  of  calcium  carbonate  (carbonate 
of  lime).  The  shell  memlyrane  consists  of  two  layers,  the  inner  one 
being  the  thinner.  At  the  large  end  of  the  eg,g  these  layers  separate, 
forming  the  air  sac.  The  albumin,  or  the  white  of  the  egg,  which  forms 
about  59  per  ct.  of  the  weight,  contains  about  14  per  ct.  dry  matter, 
this  being  nearly  all  protein.     When  an  egg  is  cooked,  this  albumin 

7  Largely  adapted  from  Lippincott,  Poultry  Production,   1916. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  POULTRY 


387 


coagulates  or  hardens.  The  yolk,  forming  about  one-third  of  the  egg, 
is  enclosed  in  a  delicate  membrane  which  keeps  it  spherical  in  shape. 
The  yolk  contains  about  49  per  ct.  water,  18  per  ct.  protein,  32  per  ct. 
fat,  and  1.5  per  ct.  ash.  The  germ  in  the  fresh-laid  egg  is  a  white 
speck  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  on  one  side  of  the  yolk. 

The  eggs  of  the  different  breeds  of  chickens  vary  somewhat  in  size, 
the  average  hen's  egg  being  2.27  inches  long  and  1.72  inches  in  di- 
ameter, and  weighing  about  2  ounces.  This  brings  the  weight  of  a 
dozen  eggs  to  1.5  lbs.  Eggs  from  pullets  are  generally  smaller  than 
those  laid  by  mature  hens. 

Selecting  the  flock.* — Under  any  method  of  feeding  and  care,  suc- 
cess with  poultry  is  possible  only  when  good  stock  is  kept.  Since  pure- 
bred fowls  or  eggs  from  such  fowls  for  hatching  can  be  obtained  at  rea- 
sonable prices,  the  wise  poultryman  will  start  with  good  stock  and,  if 
possible,  keep  improving  it.  To  obtain  the  best  chicks,  eggs  should  be 
saved  from  strong,  vigorous,  reasonably  mature  stock.  Only  the  best 
of  each  year's  crop  of  pullets,  those  which  mature  early  and  are  per- 
sistent layers,  should  be  selected  for  breeding  purposes.  Such  stock 
should  be  mated  with  vigorous  males  from  a  high-producing  strain. 

It  will  pay  everyone   who  

raises  poultry  to  spend  a  lit- 
tle time  during  the  fall  and 
winter  in  marking  the  laying 
hens  and  pullets,  leg  bands 
being  commonly  used  for  this 
purpose.  Good  layers  are 
first  of¥  the  roost  in  the  morn- 
ing and  the  last  to  go  to  roost 
at  night,  are  always  busy 
looking  for  feed,  and  have 
full  crops  at  night.  They 
are  bright-eyed,  go  about 
singing,  and  have  full-sized 
red  combs  that  are  pliable  and 
inclined  to  be  slippery.  Late 
moulting  hens  are  really  the 
best  layers,  but  are  discarded  by  many  farmers,  who  have  a  mistaken 
belief  that  early  moulting  hens  are  the  winter  layers.  Tho  the  close 
observer  can  usually  distinguish  between  hens  which  are  layers  and 
those  which  are  drones,  the  breeder  who  wishes  to  build  up  a  high-pro- 

8  This  and  the  following  paragraphs  on  incubation  and  raising  and  feeding 
chicks  are  largely  adapted  from  Halpin,  Wis.  Bui.  261. 


Fig.  110. — A  Hen  in  a  Trap  Nest 

By  using  trap  nests  the  poultryman  can 
find  out  how  many  eggs  each  hen  actually 
produces.  (From  Halpin,  Wisconsin  Sta- 
tion.) 


388  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

ducing  flock  should  install  trap  nests  and  find  out  not  only  which  hens 
are  laying  but  also  how  many  eggs  each  lays. 

Halpin  points  out :  ' '  Instead  of  breeding  from  the  best  hens,  poul- 
trymen  often  breed  from  the  poorest.  In  many  farm  flocks  there  are 
hens  that  do  not  lay  an  egg  during  the  fall  or  winter.  In  the  spring 
these  hens  get  out-of-doors  and  begin  to  lay.  They  are  not  used  to 
the  nests  in  the  house  and  often  hide  their  nests  under  a  brush  pile  or 
in  some  other  hiding  place  where  they  are  not  discovered.  A  hen  of 
this  type  frequently  lays  but  fifteen  or  twenty  eggs  a  year.  By  '  steal- 
ing' her  nest  she  manages  to  furnish  half  of  the  chicks  that  are  raised. 
This  is  equal  to  saving  heifer  calves  from  the  poorest  cows  in  the  herd." 

Saving  eggs  for  hatching. — To  produce  good  eggs  for  hatching,  the 
flock  should  be  liberally  fed  and  encouraged  to  take  plenty  of  exercise, 
but  should  not  be  forced  by  a  stimulating  ration.  When  an  incubator 
is  used,  eggs  are  commonly  kept  until  enough  have  accumulated  to  fill 
the  machine.  Eggs  should  be  kept  only  as  long  as  is  necessary,  for 
the  fresher  the  egg,  the  quicker  the  hatch,  and  the  larger  the  chick 
produced.  When  held  in  a  cool  room  at  a  temperature  of  about  50  de- 
grees, eggs  can  be  kept  from  10  to  14  days  without  serious  injury.  It 
is  best  to  keep  the  eggs  on  an  egg  tray  or  padded  table  top  and  to  turn 
all  of  them  each  day. 

A  sufficient  number  of  vigorous  males  should  be  placed  with  the  fe- 
males to  ensure  fertile  eggs.  With  good  strong  males,  from  10  to  15 
hens  of  the  general  purpose  breeds  and  20  to  30  of  the  egg  breeds  may 
be  mated  to  each  male.  When  the  fowls  are  confined  to  a  sma^l  yard, 
less  can  be  mated  than  when  they  have  free  range. 

When  enough  eggs  have  been  secured  for  hatching,  the  males  should 
be  kept  separate  from  the  flock,  for  males  are  not  required  for  the 
maximum  production  of  eggs  and  one  of  the  largest  losses  in  market 
eggs  in  spring  and  summer  is  caused  by  the  development  of  the  germ  in 
fertile  eggs.     With  infertile  eggs  this  cannot  occur. 

Incubation. — Many  people  hatch  the  chicks  too  late  in  the  season. 
They  then  seldom  reach  maturity  before  cold  weather,  and  hence  the 
pullets  produce  few  if  any  winter  eggs.  This  also  results  in  stunting 
the  pullets,  for  it  is  difficult  to  grow  them  well  in  winter  in  an  ordinary 
house,  and  in  the  spring  they  have  not  reached  normal  size  when  they 
begin  to  lay.  If  hens  are  used  for  hatching,  they  should  be  well  cared 
for  during  the  winter  so  they  will  want  to  sit  early  in  the  spring.  The 
smaller  breeds  have  so  little  tendency  to  sit  that  usually  an  incubator 
must  be  used  to  secure  early  chicks. 

Incubators  are  easy  to  operate,  if  the  directions  furnished  with  the 
machine  are  carefully  followed.  It  is  important  to  have  the  machine 
well  regulated  before  putting  in  the  eggs,  to  use  good  oil,  and  to  keep 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  POULTRY  389 

the  lamp  and  flues  clean  and  the  wick  carefully  trimmed  so  as  to  give 
a  rounded  flame.  At  hatching  time  the  machine  should  be  kept  dark- 
ened so  the  chicks  will  sleep.  The  chicks  are  better  if  kept  confined  to 
the  egg  tray  until  dry  or  partially  dry  and  then  removed  to  the 
brooder,  rather  than  letting  them  drop  down  into  the  nursery  of  the 
incubator.  About  19  days  are  required  for  the  incubation  of  eggs  of 
the  light  breeds  and  21  for  those  of  the  meat  breeds. 

Hatching  eggs  with  hens.— When  the  eggs  are  hatched  with  hens, 
clean,  roomy  nests  at  least  14  inches  square  should  be  prepared  in  some 
building  where  the  hens  will  not  be  disturbed  while  sitting.  The  nest 
should  be  placed  over  a  layer  of  3  or  4  inches  of  soil  or  sod  and  then  lit- 
tered with  soft  straw,  hay,  or  shavings,  the  corners  being  well  packed 
with  litter.  After  placing  2  or  3  nest  eggs  in  each  nest,  the  hens  are 
moved  to  the  nest  just  at  dark.  The  next  day  they  should  be  taken  off 
and  given  feed  and  water.  If  they  do  not  return  to  the  nests  in  20  to  30 
minutes  they  must  be  driven  back  or  caught  and  fastened  in  the  nest. 
As  soon  as  the  hens  settle  down  they  should  be  given  the  eggs.  Until 
the  eggs  start  to  hatch,  the  hens  should  be  taken  off  or  allowed  to 
come  off  each  day.  They  should  be  fed  all  the  whole  corn  they  will 
eat,  with  an  occasional  allowance  of  mixed  grain.  Fresh  water  should 
be  supplied  daily  and  in  hot  weather  it  is  wise  to  place  a  cup  of  water 
in  each  nest,  as  this  saves  much  bowel  trouble,  which  frequently  spoils 
many  hatchings.  The  hens  should  be  allowed  to  wallow  in  a  dirt  bath 
and  should  be  kept  free  from  lice  and  mites  by  dusting  with  a  good  in- 
sect powder  as  soon  as  they  become  accustomed  to  the  nest  and  at  the 
end  of  the  first  and  second  weeks.  In  case  mites  are  discovered  move 
the  hen  and  eggs  to  a  new  nest  and  disinfect  the  infested  nest.  Where 
possible,  several  hens  should  be  set  at  one  time.  The  infertile  eggs 
should  be  removed  toward  the  end  of  the  first  week,  and,  if  there  are 
many  infertile  ones,  the  fertile  eggs  can  be  given  to  a  few  of  the  hens 
and  the  rest  be  given  fresh  eggs. 

Brooding  chicks  with  hens. — In  rearing  chicks  with  hens,  the  essen- 
tials are  few.  The  hen,  quiet  and  motherly,  should  be  placed  in  a  light, 
portable  coop  which  will  allow  the  chicks  free  range  but  in  which  the 
hen  can  be  confined  if  desired.  The  coop  should  protect  the  hen  and 
the  chicks  from  the  weather  and  from  enemies,  and  should  be  located 
on  a  grassy,  shady  range.  Early  in  the  season  it  is  usually  best  to  have 
board  bottoms  in  the  coop,  but  later  in  the  season  and  in  dry  weather 
this  is  not  necessary.  When  bottoms  are  used  they  should  be  kept 
clean  and  should  be  littered  with  chaff  or  fresh  earth.  When  no  bot- 
toms are  used  the  coop  should  be  moved  at  least  once  every  other  day. 
This  will  prevent  killing  the  grass  and  will  fertilize  a  larger  area. 

As  soon  as  the  chicks  are  10  days  old,  the  mother  hen  may  be  turned 


390 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


toward  night  and  allowed  to  rim  with  the  brood.  If  she  does  no 
damage,  she  can  be  given  her  liberty  during  the  day  when  the  chicks  be- 
come accustomed  to  following  her.  On  most  farms  the  hens  with  their 
broods  can  be  moved  to  some  field  where  they  can  find  a  large  part  of 
their  living.  When  the  hens  wean  their  chicks,  care  should  be  taken 
to  see  that  the  orphans  do  not  desert  some  of  the  houses  and  all  crowd 
together. 

Many  find  it  practicable  to  hatch  most  of  their  chicks  in  incubators 
and  brood  them  all  with  hens.     Others  buy  chicks  from  a  central  hatch- 


FiG.  111. — Summer  Hatched  Chicks  Need  Shade 

Chicks  have  tender  skins  which  are  easily  sunburned.  Keep  those  inexpensive 
coops  clean  by  moving  them  to  a  new  spot  every  day.  (From  Halpin,  Wisconsin 
Station. ) 

ing  station  and  rear  them  with  hens.  Broody  hens  are  given  a  couple 
of  chicks  to  test  them  out  just  at  dark,  and  early  the  next  morning  the 
best  mothers  are  selected  and  given  from  12  to  30  chicks. 

Artificial  brooding. — While  rearing  chicks  with  hens  is  the  proper 
method  where  only  a  few  chicks  are  raised,  the  use  of  brooders  is  ad- 
visable where  a  large  number  must  be  cared  for.  Not  only  does  this 
save  labor  but  it  permits  raising  the  chicks  past  weaning  entirely  free 
from  lice.  Brooders  are  of  two  general  types — indoor  brooders  and 
outdoor  brooders.  The  former  must  be  placed  inside  of  some  building 
for  additional  protection,  while  the  latter  may  be  used  out-of-doors  un- 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  POULTRY  391 

der  ordinary  climatic  conditions.  The  essential  parts  consist  of  a 
heater  (except  in  the  case  of  tireless  brooders  for  a  few  chicks),  a  warm- 
air  compartment  called  the  hover,  a  cool-air  compartment,  and  a  venti- 
lating system.  In  operating  a  brooder,  the  most  important  points  are 
cleanliness,  steady  and  abundant  heat  under  proper  control,  and  op- 
portunity for  the  chicks  to  get  nearer  the  heat  when  they  are  cold  and 
room  to  get  away  from  it  when  they  are  too  warm.  Unless  the  heat 
is  steady,  the  chicks  may  either  be  overheated  or  chilled  at  night  be- 
fore they  awake  and  adjust  their  position  nearer  or  farther  away  from 
the  source  of  heat. 

The  brooder  should  be  started  at  least  24  hours  before  it  is  needed 
for  the  chicks,  and  the  temperature  carefully  regulated.  After  the 
chicks  are  transferred  to  the  brooder,  most  persons  will  have  better 
results  if  they  do  not  depend  on  the  thermometer  in  regulating  the 
heat,  but  watch  the  chicks  instead.  Give  enough  heat  so  that  they  do 
not  crowd  to  the  warm  part  of  the  hover  but  spread  out  in  the  cooler 
part  with  their  heads  sticking  out  from  under  the  curtain  at  night, 
or  so  that  a  chick  that  walks  to  the  hottest  part  of  the  brooder  stays 
there  only  a  short  time.  To  prepare  the  chicks  for  removal  to  the 
range,  they  must  be  hardened  off  gradually  by  reducing  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  brooder  after  the  second  week.  Heat  is  needed  for 
about  6  weeks  in  the  early  spring  in  the  northern  states  and  for  only 
3  to  4  weeks  later  in  the  season.  When  heat  is  finally  dispensed  with 
a  "cold  frame"  may  be  substituted  for  the  hover.  This  is  simply  a 
box  with  a  slitted  curtain  of  soft,  warm  cloth  on  one  side  and  a  cover 
of  similar  cloth  which  is  so  loose  that  it  sags  down  in  the  center  and 
rests  on  the  chicks'  backs  when  they  go  into  the  frame  to  sleep  or  get 
warm. 

Feeding  the  chicks. — Just  before  hatching,  the  yolk  of  the  egg, 
which  has  hitherto  not  been  used  for  food  by  the  chick,  is  drawn  into 
the  body  and  supplies  it  with  food  for  several  hours  after  hatching. 
Due  to  this,  it  is  advisable  not  to  give  chicks  any  solid  food  for  some 
time  after  they  are  hatched — with  incubator  chicks  at  least  48  hours. 
After  the  first  few  days,  the  chicks  must  be  fed  liberally  for  they  grow 
with  great  rapidity.  Several  methods  may  be  followed  with  equal  suc- 
cess in  feeding  chicks.  The  following,  given  by  Halpin,  will  be  sug- 
gestive : 

First  method. — Give  the  chicks  sour  milk  in  a  small  dish  when  they  are  24 
hours  old.  Keep  this  before  them  until  they  are  about  72  hours  old,  when  they 
are  given  good,  sweet  chick  feed  in  a  litter  of  chopped  clover  or  alfalfa.  This 
chick  feed  may  he  a  mixture  of  finely  cracked  corn,  cracked  wheat,  steel-cut 
oatmeal,  and  kafir,  or  such  a  mixture  as  2  parts  of  finely  cracked  corn,  2  parts 
of  cracked  wheat,  and  1  part  of  steel-cut  oats.     The  chick  feed  is  scattered  over 


392  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

the  litter  at  least  5  times  a  day,  pains  being  taken  to  have  the  chicks  out  from 
under  the  hover  to  see  the  feed  when  it  falls.  The  next  day  and  thereafter  they 
are  given  a  very  light  feed  of  moist  mash  made  up  of  equal  parts  of  corn  meal, 
rolled  oats,  bran,  and  middlings.  This  is  moistened  with  sour  milk.  Any  mash 
that  is  not  eaten  after  15  or  20  minutes  is  removed.  This  method  of  feeding  is 
continued  until  the  chicks  are  3  weeks  old,  when  the  rolled  oats  are  gradually 
dropped  from  the  ration.  At  about  this  time  whole  wheat  and  medium  cracked 
corn  are  added  to  the  chick  feed  and  are  increased  as  rapidly  as  the  chicks  learn 
to  eat  it.  As  soon  as  they  show  a  willingness  to  eat  the  coarser  feed  the  fine 
feed  is  omitted.  When  the  chicks  are  2  weeks  old,  a  small  hopper  is  filled  with 
a  mash  of  2  parts  ground  corn,  2  of  bran  and  1  of  middlings.  Another  hopper 
containing  meat  scrap  of  a  good  grade  is  also  placed  in  the  pen.  The  chicks  are 
given  free  access  to  these  feeds.  Green  feed,  grit,  charcoal,  and  water  should 
always  be  before  them. 

Second  method. — Stale  bread  crumbs  moistened  with  sour  milk  are  fed  after 
the  chicks  are  48  hours  old.  Squeeze  bread  nearly  dry.  Give  sour  milk  or  water 
to  drink.  After  the  first  5  days  give  a  moist  mash  of  bran  and  ground  corn 
with  chopped  onions  or  other  green  feed.  Feed  wheat  screenings  and  cracked 
corn  after  the  first  Aveek.  Early  in  the  season  stir  this  into  a  litter  of  clover 
chaff. 

Third  method. — Feed  Johnny  cake  for  the  first  10  days.  This  is  made  as 
follows:  Mix  1  pint  of  finely  ground  corn,  1  teacupful  wheat  bran,  1  teaspoon- 
ful  ground  meat,  1  teaspoonful  soda,  and  1  teacupful  sour  milk,  and  bake  1  hour. 
Feed  4  times  a  day.  Stir  a  little  chick  feed  or  other  fine  grain  into  the  litter. 
Provide  green  feed,  grit,  water,  and  charcoal. 

Fourth  method. — Feed  chick  feed  in  litter  5  times  a  day  for  the  first  10  days; 
after  that  feed  chick  feed  .3  times  a  day.  Give  in  addition  a  moist  mash  made 
of  equal  parts  of  bran,  ground  corn,  and  ground  barley  (with  coarse  hulls  sifted 
out)  twice  daily.  Give  milk,  green  feed,  grit,  water,  and  charcoal  as  recom- 
mended in  first  method. 

When  the  chicks  have  ample  range,  they  can  often  pick  up  in  the 
form  of  worms  and  insects  practically  all  of  the  animal  feed  that  is  nec- 
essary. However,  where  chicks  are  raised  on  a  large  scale,  it  always 
pays  to  supply  additional  animal  matter.  For  this  purpose,  skim 
milk  and  buttermilk  are  the  best,  if  they  can  be  obtained.  Other 
forms  of  animal  feed  are  discussed  in  the  following  chapter.  Ground 
bone,  which  should  be  fed  in  a  hopper,  supplies  mineral  elements  that 
help  the  chick  to  grow  a  good,  strong  frame.  Fresh,  finely  ground 
green  bone  can  also  be  supplied,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that 
it  is  fresh  and  sweet,  and  is  fed  in  small  quantities. 

From  the  start  the  chick  should  have  access  to  finely  crushed  rock, 
coarse  sand,  fine  gravel,  or  specially  prepared  commercial  grit.  The 
"chick  size"  white  limestone  is  especially  valuable.  Fine  charcoal 
should  also  be  supplied  whenever  possible.  Both  the  grit  and  the  char- 
coal may  be  mixed  with  the  scratch  feed  and  fed  in  small  quantities, 
or  each  may  be  put  into  a  separate  compartment  of  a  hopper  after 
the  first  few  days. 

Pullets  and  cockerels. — Pullets  should  be  grown  in  a  movable  colony 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  POULTRY         393 

house  on  the  open  range  wherever  possible.  When  given  free  range 
they  may  be  allowed  to  help  themselves  to  grain  and  mash  in  self- 
feeding  hoppers.  The  grain  feed  may  consist  of  equal  parts  of  wheat 
and  cracked  corn,  and  the  mash  of  equal  parts  of  wheat  bran, 
wheat  middlings,  and  corn  meal.  If  insects  are  not  abundant 
meat  scrap  or  milk  should  be  given.  Green  feed  should  be  supplied 
in  case  of  drought.  Water,  grit,  charcoal,  and  oyster  shell  should  be 
accessible  at  all  times. 

The  care  of  cockerels  for  the  breeding  flock  does  not  differ  from 
that  for  pullets.  Those  not  to  be  kept  for  breeding  may  be  sold  while 
still  on  the  range  or  may  be  fattened  in  crates.     Successful  crate  fat- 


DucK  Ranch 

Several  poultrymen  liave  made  a  pronounced  success  of  raising  ducks  on  a 
large  scale.      (From  Wisconsin  Station.) 

tening  demands  young  and  vigorous  stock  kept  closely  confined  in  clean 
crates  or  coops.  The  usual  concentrate  mixture  consists  of  about  60  lbs, 
corn  meal  and  40  lbs.  red  dog  flour  or  flour  wheat  middlings.  Oat  flour 
or  barley  flour  are  sometimes  added.  This  feed  is  mixed  with  butter- 
milk at  the  rate  of  1  quart  of  buttermilk  to  1  lb.  of  dry  feed.  The 
fowls  are  given  just  a  trifle  less  feed  than  they  will  clean  up.  Feed- 
ing is  carried  on  for  about  14  days  and  gains  of  about  35  per  et.  in 
live  weight  are  common. 

Ducks. — The  most  profitable  ducks  are  marketed  at  about  10  weeks 
of  age  when  they  weigh  from  5  to  6  lbs.  each.  Young  ducks  should 
always  be  fed  on  ground  feed,  animal  feed,  green  feed,  and  grit  mixed 


394  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

into  a  crumbly  mash.  They  may  be  started  on  4  parts  wheat  bran, 
1  part  wheat  middlings,  and  1  part  corn  meal,  with  5  per  ct.  grit 
added.  From  4  to  6  days  of  age  np  to  4  or  5  weeks  of  age  add  5  per 
ct.  of  meat  scrap  and  plenty  of  green  feed.  From  this  time  up  to 
six  weeks  reduce  the  proportion  of  wheat  bran  to  3  parts.  Then  feed 
equal  parts  of  wheat  bran  and  corn  meal,  with  10  per  ct.  of  meat  scrap, 
15  per  et.  of  middlings,  and  10  per  ct.  of  green  feed.  After  8 
weeks  of  age,  corn  meal  should  form  half  the  ration.  The  balance  may 
be  equal  parts  bran  and  middlings  with  10  per  ct.  of  the  entire  ration 
consisting  of  meat  scrap,  3  per  ct.  of  grit,  and  about  5  per  ct.  of 
green  feed.     At  ten  weeks  they  should  be  ready  for  market. 

Old  ducks  during  the  laying  season  may  be  fed  an  ordinary 
poultry  mash,  with  plenty  of  green  feed  and  with  10  per  ct.  of  the 
ration  consisting  of  meat  scrap.  When  not  laying  give  good  pasture 
and  not  over  5  per  ct.  of  meat  scrap  in  their  mash. 

Geese. — ^Breeding  geese  should  have  good  pasture  during  the  sum- 
mer and  clover  hay,  oats,  and  bran  in  winter.  Young  goslings  are 
best  started  on  bread  and  milk  with  plenty  of  green  feed.  After  2 
weeks  feed  a  light  feed  twice  a  day  of  equal  parts  wheat  bran  and 
corn  meal  moistened  with  milk.  Always  supply  plenty  of  green  stuff. 
When  pasture  is  abundant  they  will  need  no  other  feed  after  3  or  4 
weeks  of  age. 

Turkeys. — Young  turkeys  should  be  fed  sparingly  a  mixture  of 
finely  chopped  hard  boiled  eggs,  green  stuff,  and  rolled  oats.  Feed 
only  what  the  poults  will  eat  in  about  five  minutes.  Fine,  sweet  chick 
feed  follows  in  a  few  days.  Feed  sparingly  and  allow  the  poults 
to  "pick"  as  much  of  their  living  as  possible  on  the  range.  Over- 
feeding kills  many  each  year.  Breeding  turkeys  should  be  fed  a 
mixture  of  grains  and  occasionally  be  given  some  green  feed  during 
the  winter. 

Hints  on  feeding-  poultry. — For  good  production,  either  of  meat  or 
of  eggs,  animals  must  consume  a  large  amount  of  feed.  Hence,  feeds 
must  be  provided  which  are  palatable  and  attractive.  The  art  of 
feeding  lies  in  stimulating  the  appetite  of  the  flock  so  that  the 
birds  will  eat  heartily;  yet  over  feeding  must  be  avoided,  for  this 
causes  loss  of  appetite  and  makes  the  birds  lazy.  The  skilled  feeder 
seeks  to  feed  growing,  laying,  or  fattening  poultry  just  a  little  less 
than  they  would  like  to  eat.  It  might  appear  that  feeding  young 
stock  on  the  range  grain  in  hoppers  or  allowing  laying  hens  to  eat 
dry  mash  in  hoppers  at  all  times  is  contrary  to  this  rule.  However, 
as  Lippincott  points  out,^  in  both  these  cases  the  amount  of  the  most 
palatable  kind  of  feed  is  limited.     On  range  the  chicks  are  so  eager 

9  Lippincott,  Poultry  Production,  1916,  p.  366. 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  POULTRY  395 

to  secure  bugs  and  worms  that  they  do  not  overeat  of  the  hopper- 
fed  grain.  The  laying  hens  prefer  the  scratching  grain  fed  in  the 
litter  to  the  finely  ground  dry  mash  fed  in  the  hopper,  and  usually 
eat  only  enough  of  the  latter  to  piece  out  the  allowance  of  scratch- 
ing feed. 

Feeding  and  watering  should  always  be  done  at  regular  times  for 
all  classes  of  poultry.  At  the  customary  feeding  hour  the  birds  will 
congregate  at  the  place  of  feeding,  waiting  for  the  appearance  of  the 
feeder.  If  feeding  time  is  long  delayed,  they  become  irritated  and 
tend  to  eat  less,  which  cuts  down  production. 

Supplying  a  considerable  variety  of  feeds  stimulates  the  appetite 
and  encourages  the  consumption  of  a  large  amount  of  feed.  At  least 
two  grains  should  preferably  be  given  in  the  scratch  feed  and  three 
different  feeds  in  the  mash,  in  addition  to  green  feed,  and  such  animal 
feed  as  meat  scrap  or  milk.  All  feeds  should  be  sound  and  wholesome, 
as  stale,  moldy  feeds  often  cause  loss  of  appetite,  diarrhea,  and  other 
digestive  disorders.  Also,  feeds  should  always  be  given  in  clean 
litter,  troughs,  and  hoppers. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  doet,  the  hen  compare  in  efficiency  of  food  production  with  other  live 
stock  ? 

2.  Tell  how  the  digestive  system  of  poultry  differs  from  that  of  other  farm 
animals. 

3.  Discuss  the  nutrient  requirements  of  poultry. 

4.  \Yhat  forms  of  mineral  matter  are  fed  to  poultry  and  why? 

5.  Discuss  the  requirements  of  poultry  for  animal  food,  salt,  water,  and  char- 
coal. 

6.  Describe  the  kind  of  poultry  house  you  would  build. 

7.  Why  is  mash  commonly  fed  to  poultry? 

8.  What  is  the  value  of  green  feed  for  poultry? 

9.  Describe  the  various  types  of  fowls. 

10.  Tell  how  you  would  feed  laying  hens. 

11.  Give  an  example  of  a  good  laying  ration. 

12.  Describe  the  structure  of  the  egg. 

13.  What  points  are  of  special  importance  in  selecting  the  flock? 

14.  Discuss  (a)  saving  eggs  for  hatching;  (b)  incubation;  (c)  hatching  eggs 
with  hens;    (d)    brooding  chicks  with  hens;   and    (e)    artificial  brooding. 

15.  How  would  you  feed    (a)   chicks;    (b)    pullets;    (c)    fattening  cockerels? 

16.  Tell  about  tiie  feeding  (a)  of  young  ducks;  (b)  laying  du^-ks;  (c)  geese; 
(d)  turkeys. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

FEEDS  FOR  POULTRY 
I.     Carbonaceous  Concentrates 

Because  of  the  nature  of  their  digestive  tract,  poultry  can  utilize 
but  little  roughage,  so  important  a  part  of  the  rations  for  horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep.  Indeed,  poultry  make  even  less  use  of  feeds  high 
in  fiber  than  do  swine.  The  common  cereals  and  their  by-products  are 
usually  bulky  enough  for  poultry,  and  roughages  have  small  place 
in  their  rations,  except  when  fed  green  for  succulence.  Since  the 
cereals  are  all  rather  low  in  protein,  they  should  be  supplemented  by 
protein-rich  feeds,  such  as  meat  scrap,  skim  milk  or  buttermilk,  wheat 
bran,  linseed  meal,  etc. 

Indian  corn. — Corn  is  the  chief  grain  fed  to  poultry  in  most  parts 
of  this  country,  principally  because  they  prefer  it  to  all  other  cereals, 
because  it  is  rich  in  starch  and  fat,  and  because  it  is  commonly  the 
cheapest  source  of  digestible  nutrients  among  the  grains,  from  the  corn 
belt  eastward.  Since  it  is  low  in  protein  and  mineral  matter  and  is 
also  very  concentrated,  corn  should  not  be  fed  alone,  but  should  be 
supplemented  by  bulkier  feeds  and  those  rich  in  the  nutrients  it  lacks. 
The  low  egg  production  of  many  farm  flocks  is  undoubtedly  often  due 
to  the  exclusive  feeding  of  corn.  Properly  combined  with  feeds  rich 
in  protein  and  mineral  matter,  especiall}^  calcium  and  phosphorus,  and 
fed  with  some  bulky  feed,  such  as  green  food  or  cut  clover,  corn 
gives  excellent  results.  Yellow  corn  produces  darker  colored  yolks  and 
yellower  body  fat  than  white  corn  or  the  other  cereals. 

Cracking  or  grinding  corn  does  not  increase  its  digestibility  for 
poultry,  but  many  crack  it  to  force  the  birds  to  take  more  exercise  in 
picking  up  a  full  meal.  Except  for  chicks,  the  grain  is  coarsely 
cracked.     Corn  meal  is  the  foundation  of  most  poultry  mashes. 

Wheat;  wheat  screenings. — Wheat,  commonly  considered  the  best 
single  grain  for  poultry,  is  preferred  by  them  to  all  other  grain  ex- 
cept corn.  Because  of  its  high  cost,  it  is  not  usually  economical  to 
feed  wheat  as  the  chief  grain,  but  a  limited  amount  is  an  excellent 
addition  to  the  ration.  Tho  carrying  more  protein  than  corn,  it  should 
be  supplemented  by  protein-rich  feeds.  Soft  wheat  is  more  palatable 
to  poultry  than  that  having  hard  kernels.     Shrunken  wheat,  which  is 


FEEDS  FOR  POULTRY  397 

unfit  for  flour  making  and  is  hence  cheaper,  is  richer  in  protein  and 
fully  as  valuable  for  feeding  as  plump  wheat. 

Wheat  screenings,  when  of  good  quality  and  not  musty  or  smutted, 
are  satisfactory  for  poultry.  The  value  depends  on  the  proportion  of 
shrunken  wheat  and  weed  seeds  to  worthless  trash. 

Oats. — Due  to  the  large  amount  of  fiber  in  the  hulls,  oats  rank 


Lt 

F            iiii^i  ,1                -iifci^wN^,.....^— P 

llfftHMHH&^^^^9 

^^^^P^^P^^ 

'■  '*"*'.''''„    .  •' 

Fig.  113. — Poultry  Raising  Fits  into  Intensive  Agriculture 

The  truck  gardener  or  the  fruitgrower  can  often  increase  his  profits  by  raising 
poultry.  The  illustration  shows  chickens  ranging  on  land  planted  to  corn  and 
young  fruit  trees.     (From  Indiana  Station.) 

below  corn  or  wheat  for  supplying  nutrients.  They  are  also  usually 
costly  compared  with  corn  and  are  not  well  relished  by  poultry. 
However,  mixed  with  other  concentrates,  they  are  useful  in  giving  bulk 
to  the  ration  and  adding  variety.  Plump,  heavy  oats  should  be  used 
for  poultry  as  the  hulls  are  almost  worthless  for  them.  Whole  oats 
or  clipped  oats  are  often  fed  as  part  of  the  scratch  feed,  rolled  oats 
and  pin-head  oat  meal  are  favorite  feeds  for  baby  chicks,  and  hulled 
oats  are  esteemed  for  older  chicks.  As  pointed  out  later  in  this  chap- 
ter, sprouted  oats  are  an  excellent  succulent  feed. 

Barley. — Tho  less  palatable  than  corn  or  wheat,  barley  is  an  ex- 
cellent grain  for  poultry,  being  nearly  equal  to  these  grains  in  feeding 
value.  In  sections  of  the  West  it  is  the  most  common  grain  for  poul- 
try. 


398  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

The  sorghums ;  millet.— Kafir  is  well  liked  by  poultry  and  is  nearly 
equal  in  value  to  corn  or  wheat.  It  is  used  in  many  proprietary  poul- 
try feeds.  Milo  should  be  equal  or  slightly  superior  to  kafir.  Seed 
from  sweet  sorghum  and  broom  corn  is  also  satisfactory  for  poultry. 
Millet  seed  is  often  used  as  a  feed  for  young  chicks.  However,  as  it 
is  higher  in  fiber  than  wheat  or  corn,  it  is  less  valuable  than  these 
grains.     It  may  be  injurious  when  fed  in  large  amounts. 

Other  carbonaceous  feeds. — Rye  is  fed  but  little  to  poultry  in 
America,  as  the  other  cereals  are  much  more  palatable. 

Rice  is  not  commonly  fed  to  poultry  except  when  off  grade.  Broken 
rice,  resulting  from  the  manufacture  of  table  rice,  is  used  in  some 
commercial  chick  feeds. 

Buckwheat  is  usually  relished  by  poultry  and  forms  a  welcome  addi- 
tion to  the  scratch  feed.  It  is  usually  too  high  in  price  to  feed  except 
in  districts  where  it  is  grown. 

Emmer  is  well  liked  by  poultry  and  resembles  oats  in  feeding  value. 

Sometimes  salvage  grain  may  be  secured  at  a  price  which  makes  its 
use  economical. 

H-ominy  feed,  tho  little  used  for  poultry,  is  worth  fully  as  much  as 
corn  meal. 

Dry,  stale  bread,  which  can  often  be  secured  cheaply  from  bak- 
eries, gives  good  results  as  part  of  the  mash.  Dried  bread  crumbs 
or  cracker  crumbs  soaked  in  milk  are  often  fed  to  young  chicks. 


II.    Protein-rich  Concentrates 

Meat  scrap. — ^As  has  been  pointed  out  in  the  preceding  chapter, 
feeds  of  animal  origin  are  of  especial  importance  for  poultry.  In 
summer  poultry  having  abundant  range  can  gather  a  considerable 
amount  of  animal  feed  in  the  form  of  insects  and  worms,  thus  reducing 
the  amount  that  need  be  supplied.  Of  animal  feeds,  the  most  widely 
used  is  meat  scrap,  tho  in  dairy  districts  it  is  wisely  being  replaced 
by  skim  milk  and  buttermilk.  In  purchasing  meat  scrap,  special  at- 
tention should  be  paid  to  the  guaranteed  amount  of  protein,  for  the 
high-grade  brands,  carrying  55  to  60  per  ct.  of  protein  or  over,  are 
usually  much  more  economical  than  the  lower  grades,  which  usually 
cost  but  a  few  dollars  per  ton  less.  Meat  scrap  should  form  from 
5  to  25  per  ct.  of  the  dry  mash,  depending  on  the  amount  of  protein 
supplied  in  the  other  ingredients  of  the  mash  and  in  the  scratching 
grain.  Of  course,  less  need  be  supplied  poultry  which  have  ample 
range  in  summer.     Poultry  do  not  relish  dried  blood  or  tankage. 

Fresh  meat. — When  fresh  meat  or  meat  scraps  can  be  secured 
cheaply,  they  are  even  more  satisfactory  than  dried  meat  scrap,  on 


FEEDS  FOR  POULTRY 


399 


account  of  their  greater  palatability.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
fresh  lean  meat  contains  but  about  40  per  ct,  as  much  protein  as 
high-grade  dried  meat  scrap,  and  consequently  more  must  be  used  to 
balance  the  ration. 

Skim  milk;  buttermilk;  whey. — These  dairy  by-products  are  fully 
as  satisfactory  protein-rich  feeds  as  dried  meat  scrap.  They  may  be 
given  as  a  drink  or  may  be  used  to  mix  with  the  mash,  the  latter 
being  a  common  practice  in  the  commercial  fattening  of  poultry. 
Skim  milk  or  buttermilk  is  especially  valuable  for  young  chicks. 
Sour  skim  milk  is  preferred  to  sweet  for  poultry. 

Whey,  tho  of  much  less  value  than  skim  milk  or  buttermilk,  may  be 
used  with  good  results  as  a  drink  or  for  moistening  mashes.  In  using 
whey,  it  should  be  remembered  that  it  is  only  fairly  rich  in  protein. 


Fig.  114. — Mtlk  Is  an  Ideal  Feed  for  Growing  Chicks 

(1)  Chicks,  6  weeks  old,  fed  wheat  and  green  clover;  (2)  chicks,  same  age,  fed 
cracked  corn,  green  clover,  and  milk;  (3)  chicks,  same  age,  fed  cracked  corn  and 
green  clover.  The  chicks  fed  milk  gained  about  4  times  as  much  as  Lot  I  or 
Lot  in.  None  of  them  died,  while  the  death  rate  in  Lot  I  was  IG  per  ct.  and  in 
Lot  III  40  per  ct.     (From  TIalpin,  Wisconsin  Station.) 

Fish  scrap;  fresh  fish. — ^A  good  grade  of  fish  scrap,  from  which 
most  of  the  oil  has  been  expressed,  is  a  satisfactory  substitute  for  meat 
scrap.  The  kind  of  fish  scrap  usually  sold  for  fertilizer  should  not  be 
emj)loyed.  Fresh  fish  are  frequently  fed  in  winter  but  care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  all  tainted  or  spoiled  meat  is  rejected,  lest  the 
fowls  be  made  sick  or  bad-flavored  eggs  result. 

Milk  albumin. — This  is  a  trade  name  for  a  by-product  obtained  in 
the  manufacture  of  milk  sugar  from  skim  milk.  In  the  process  the 
casein  is  precipitated  by  lime  and  the  resulting  cake,  composed  of 
casein  and  lime,  is  ground  and  sold  as  milk  albumin.  It  is  a  good 
source  of  protein  and  is  palatable  to  poultry,  but  is  usually  high  in 
price. 

Green  cut  bone. — Many  poultrymen  secure  from  meat  shops  fresh 
bones  with  adhering  meat,  grind  them  in  bone  cutters,  and  feed  while 


400  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

still  fresh.  Green  cut  bone  of  good  quality  is  a  highly  satisfactory 
animal  feed,  but  its  use  is  limited,  as  it  will  keep  but  a  short  time, 
and  it  is  often  difficult  to  secure  a  supplj^  regularly.  When  neces- 
sary to  hold  fresh  ground  bone  even  for  d  comparatively  few  hours 
it  should  be  spread  out  thinly.  A  paper  sack  full  of  fresh  ground 
green  bone  will  frequently  spoil  over  night,  even  in  a  cold  room. 
If  spread  out  thinly  it  can  be  kept  in  a  warmer  room,  where  there  is 
no  danger  of  freezing. 

Wheat  by-products. — Wheat  Iran  forms  part  of  most  mashes  for 
poultry,  adding  bulk  to  a  mixture  of  heavier  concentrates.  Even 
when  bran  is  high  in  price,  compared  with  other  feeds,  the  use  of  a 
limited  amount  may  be  advisable  on  account  of  its  slightly  laxative 
and  cooling  effect.     31iddlings  are  used  in  most  poultry  mashes. 

Linseed  meal. — Because  of  its  beneficial  effect  on  the  digestive  sys- 
tem and  its  laxative  action,  linseed  meal  is  a  valuable  feed  for  poultry, 
but  should  not  form  over  10  per  ct.  of  the  ration.  It  is  undesirable 
for  use  in  wet  mashes  because  of  its  gummy  nature  and  is  unpalatable 
when  fed  in  large  amounts.  Old-process  linseed  meal  is  especially 
helpful  during  the  moulting  season  and  in  fitting  birds  for  shows,  as 
it  hastens  the  growth  of  feathers  and  gives  them  luster. 

Cottonseed  meal. — Contradictory  results  have  been  secured  in  trials 
where  cottonseed  meal  has  been  fed  to  poultry.  In  some  cases  it  has 
been  substituted  successfully  for  dried  meat  scrap,  but  in  others  the 
results  have  been  much  less  satisfactory.  As  a  result,  poultrymen 
at  present  do  not  favor  this  concentrate. 

Sunflower  seeds. — Sunflower  seeds,  rich  in  oil  and  high  in  protein, 
are  often  used  in  fitting  poultry  for  shows  and  as  a  conditioner  during 
the  moulting  season,  since  they  hasten  the  growth  of  feathers  and  give 
luster,  the  same  as  does  linseed  meal.  They  are  frequently  grown  for 
shade  in  poultry  yards,  the  heads  being  fed  to  the  flock.  Except  when 
thus  used  they  are  rarely  economical  for  general  use  in  balancing  the 
ration. 

Miscellaneous  protein-rich  concentrates. — Wet  drewers'  grains  are 
excellent  for  poultry,  if  fed  fresh,  for  they  are  palatable  and  succulent. 

Dried  hrewers'  grains  are  often  economical  to  use  as  part  of  the 
mash.  Gluten  feed,  palatable  and  satisfactory  for  poultry,  is  com- 
monly an  economical  protein-rich  feed,  due  to  its  richness  in  protein 
and  its  high  digestibility. 

Buckwheat  middlings  and  buckivheat  bran  of  good  grade  may  be 
used  as  a  substitute  for  wheat  bran  in  mashes.  Low-grade  bran,  con- 
taining much  hulls,  should  not  be  fed  to  poultry. 

Field  peas,  soybeans,  and  coivpeas  are  all  satisfactory  for  poultry, 
but  are  not  commonly  fed  because  they  are  usually  high  in  price. 


FEEDS  FOR  POULTRY  401 

Meal  from  these  protein-rich  seeds  may  be  used  as  part  of  the  mash 
to  balance  the  ration. 


III.     Succulent  Feeds  and  Roughages 

Mangels. — For  winter  feeding,  mangels  are  one  of  the  best  succulent 
feeds,  due  to  the  ease  of  growth  and  large  yield,  and  to  the  fact  that 
they  keep  well  during  the  winter.  A  good  method  of  feeding  is  to 
split  the  beets  lengthwise  and  stick  the  halves  on  nails  driven  in  the 
walls  of  the  pen,  about  18  inches  from  the  floor,  and  then  allow  the 
fowls  to  pick  at  them. 

Cabbag-e. — Cabbage  is  highly  relished  by  poultry  and  is  probably  the 
best  green  feed  for  fall  and  early  winter  use.  Experiments  at  the 
"Wisconsin  Station  ^  seem  to  give  cabbage  first  place  among  the  green 
feeds,  especially  while  the  hens  are  moulting.  The  cabbage  should 
be  fastened  to  a  wire  clamp  on  a  string  suspended  from  the  ceiling, 
and  should  be  about  18  inches  above  the  floor,  so  that  the  birds  may 
reach  it  easily. 

Sprouted  oats. — The  sprouting  of  oats  to  furnish  succulent  feed 
during  the  winter  is  increasing  in  popularity  among  poultrymen. 
Tho  oats  may  be  sprouted  in  several  ways,  ,the  following  is  the 
method  usually  employed:  The  oats  are  placed  in  a  pail  or  tub, 
which  is  filled  with  water  at  a  temperature  of  not  over  100°  F.,  to 
which  are  added  10  drops  of  formalin  for  each  10  quarts.-  The  oats 
are  allowed  to  soak  over  night  in  a  warm  room  and  next  morning  they 
are  spread  to  a  depth  of  one  inch  on  a  tray.  This  is  commonly  placed 
in  a  rack,  made  to  hold  at  least  7  trays.  The  oats  are  kept  in  a 
room  in  which  the  temperature  is  not  lower  than  60°  F.,  and  are 
sprinkled  with  warm  water  once  or  twice  a  day.  In  7  to  10  days  the 
top  sprouts  will  be  2  to  3  inches  long  and  the  oats  ready  for  use. 
They  are  usually  fed  in  broad,  flat  troughs,  no  more  being  given  than 
the  birds  will  clean  up  within  half  an  hour. 

Other  succulent  feeds  for  winter. — Sugar  beets  are  satisfactory  for 
poultry  but  are  usually  more  expensive  per  pound  of  dry  matter 
contained  than  are  mangels.  Turnips  and  rutabagas  may  be  fed  to 
poultry  but  should  be  used  in  moderation  or  they  will  impart  a  bad 
flavor  to  the  eggs.  They  are  especially  suited  for  fall  feeding,  as 
they  do  not  keep  as  well  as  mangels. 

Silage  of  good  (luality  may  be  fed  to  poultry  with  good  results,  but 
nearly  all  poultrymen  prefer  some  other  form  of  succulence.  In  feed- 
ing corn  silage  care  should  be  taken  to  choose  the  leafy  part  rather 

1  Halpin,  Information  to  the  authors. 

2  Lewis,  Productive  Poultry  Husbandry,  11)14,  p.  189. 


402  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

than  that  which  is  largely  corn.  Silage  should  be  fed  in  small 
quantities  until  the  flock  becomes  accustomed  to  it. 

Green  feeds  for  spring  and  summer. — For  early  spring  rye  pasture 
is  an  excellent  green  feed.  To  prevent  scours  the  fowls  should  not  be 
allowed  to  eat  a  large  amount  of  the  rye  until  they  become  accustomed 
to  it.  Green  alfalfa  and  green  clover  furnish  excellent  grazing  for 
poultry  or  may  be  cut  as  soilage  and  fed  to  birds  confined  to  bare  lots. 
Rape,  planted  early,  may  be  pastured  thruout  the  season,  or  will 
yield  several  cuttings,  if  not  cut  below  the  crown.  Lettuce  is  excellent 
for  broiler  chicks  in  early  spring  before  other  green  feed  is  available. 
Onion  tops  and  onions  are  relished  by  poultry  when  fed  in  small 
amounts,  and  give  variety  to  the  ration.  Too  large  amounts  fed  to 
laying  hens  will  taint  the  eggs.  Sliced  onions  are  the  best  of  all 
green  feeds  for  very  small  chicks  but  are  not  usually  fed  in  large 
quantities  because  of  the  high  cost. 

Legume  hay. — The  only  dry  roughage  of  any  value  for  poultry  is 
cut  or  ground  legume  hay.  This  is  often  used  as  part  of  the  dry 
mash  to  increase  its  bulk,  up  to  one-fourth  of  the  mash  consisting 
of  the  legume  hay.  Alfalfa  hay  is  used  somewhat  more  commonly  than 
clover  hay,  tho  there  is  little  difference  in  their  value.  Poultry,  how- 
ever, prefer  clover  to  alfalfa.  Cut  alfalfa  or  clover  hay,  when 
steamed,  may  be  used  as  a  temporary  substitute  for  succulent  feed. 
On  the  farm,  the  leaves  which  shatter  from  legume  hay  in  feeding  to 
other  stock  should  be  saved  for  the  poultry.  Alfalfa  or  clover  meal 
is  not  better  than  the  finely  cut  hay. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  precautions  should  be  used  in  feeding  corn  to  poultry? 

2.  What  grain  is  commonly  considered  the  best  single  grain  for  poultry? 
Discuss  its  use. 

3.  How  do  oats  and  barley  compare  with  corn  and  wheat  for  poultry? 

4.  What  is  the  value  for  poultry  of  the  sorghums,  millet,  rye,  rice,  buckwheat, 
emmer,  hominy  feed,  and  stale  bread? 

5.  Discuss  the  value  of  the  most  widely  used  animal  feed. 

6.  Tell  what  yoti  can  about  6  other  animal  feeds  used  for  poultry. 

7.  What  is  the  use  in  poultry  feeding  of  wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings,  linseed 
meal,  cottonseed  meal,  and  sunflower  seeds? 

8.  Discuss  the  value  of  the  3  best  succulent  feeds  for  winter  feeding. 

9.  W'hat  other  succulent  feeds  are  used  in  flocks  in  your  vicinity  in  winter 
and  in  the  growing  season? 

10.  How  is  legume  hay  used  in  poultry  feeding? 


APPENDIX 

Table  I.    Average  Composition  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs 

The  following  averages,  showing  the  composition  of  the  most  important 
American  feeding  stuffs,  are  taken  from  the  much  more  extensive  table  in  the 
unabridged  edition  of  Feeds  and  Feeding.  Tliis  table  and  Appendix  Tables  II 
and  III  are  based  upon  an  exhaustive  compilation,  made  by  the  authors,  of  the 
analyses  and  digestion  coefficients  reported  by  the  State  Experiment  Stations 
and  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  completeness  and  ac- 
curacy of  the  data  here  presented  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  merely  the 
preparation  of  the  unabridged  tables  required  the  time  of  trained  assistants 
equivalent  to  one  person  working  steadily  for  three  years,  in  addition  to  the 
supervision  of  the  authors.  The  student  desiring  to  know  the  composition  and 
digestibility  of  feeding  stufl's  not  given  in  these  tables  is  referred  to  the  ex- 
haustive tables  in  the  unabridged  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

This  table  and  Appendix  Tables  II  and  III  are  fully  protected  by  copyright. 


Feeding  stuff 


Water 

Ash 

Crude 
protein 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct 

9.3 

2.7 

11.5 

11.8 

29 

10.2 

12.1 

2.1 

10.8 

10.5 

1.5 

10.1 

12.2 

1.5 

10,4 

30.6 

1.0 

7.4 

9.3 

1.8 

11  5 

10.4 

1.5 

8.5 

11.4 

2.8 

96 

9.5 

4.6 

8.9 

9.4 

4.6 

19.5 

11.6 

3.4 

23.6 

9.9 

2.0 

10.1 

8.7 

3.7 

11.9 

10.8 

1.5 

11.5 

9.2 

4.3 

22.6 

12.6 

3.8 

26.2 

11.8 

1.7 

11.1 

12.5 

2.8 

9.7 

9.9 

1.9 

10.5 

9.1 

3.3 

11.8 

10.7 

2.8 

107 

10.3 

3.1 

10.0 

9.2 

3.5 

12.4 

Carbohydrates 

Fiber 

N-iree 
e.xtract 

Fat 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Per  ct. 

4.6 

69.8 

2.1 

8.2 

63.5 

3.4 

10.3 

62.2 

2.5 

2.0 

70.9 

5.0 

1.5 

69.4 

5.0 

1.2 

56.0 

3.8 

2.3 

67.2 

79 

7.9 

67.6 

4.1 

7.4 

65.0 

3.8 

13.7 

59.7 

3.6 

22.6 

24.9 

19.0 

4.1 

55.8 

1.5 

1.7 

72.8 

3.5 

10.1 

63.7 

1.9 

1.2 

71.7 

3.3 

7.1 

23.2 

33.7 

7.1 

49.4 

0.9 

2.3 

70.1 

3.0 

6.4 

65.9 

2  7 

1.5 

71.9 

4.3 

7.8 

64.7 

3.3 

2.4 

70.5 

2,9 

5.9 

68.1 

2.6 

10.9 

59.6 

4.4 

No.  of 

anal- 


CONCENTRATES 

Grains  and  seeds 

Barley    

Broom-corn  seed 

Buckwheat  

Corn,  dent   

Corn,  flint   

Corn,  soft    

Corn,  sweet,  mature   

Corn-and-cob  meal   

Corn  and  oat  feed   

Corn  and  oat  feed,  low  grade  .  . 

Cotton    seed    

Cowpea    

Durra  grain    

Emmer    (spelt)     

Feterita   grain    

Flax   seed    

Horse  bean    

Kafir  grain    

Kafir-head  chops    

Kaoliang   grain    

Hog,  or  broom-corn,  millet  seed 

Jlilo   grain    

Milo-head  chops  

Oats  


298 
4 

18 
440 

52 
154 

67 

1,789 

386 

38 

30 

5 
37 

1 
50 

2 
135 

21 
12 
52 

125 
40 

490 


403 


404 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


Table  I.     Average  Composition  of  Amekican  Feeding  Stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuff 


CONCEX  TR  ATES — COn . 

Grains  and  seeds — con. 

Peanut,  with  hull   

Pea,  field  

Rice,  rough   

Rye    

Shallu  grain   

Sorghum  grain  

Soybean    

Velvet  bean,  seed  

Velvet  bean,  seed  and  pod 

Wheat,  all  analyses    

Wheat,   spring    

Wheat,  winter    

By-products  of  factories,  etc. 

Beet  pulp,  dried  

Beet  pulp,  molasses-   

Beet  pulp,  wet   

Brewers'  grains,  dried   

Brewers'  grains,  wet   

Buckwheat  bran,  high  grade 

Buckwheat  feed,  good  grade 

Buckwheat  feed,  low  grade 

Buckwheat  hulls    

Buckwheat  middlings   

Cocoanut  meal,  low  in  fat 

Corn  bran    

Corn   cob    

Pold-pressed  cottonseed  cake 

Cottonseed  meal,  choice 

Cottonseed  meal,  prime   

Cottonseed  meal,  good   

Cottonseed   feed    

Cottonseed  hulls 

Distillers'  grains,  dried,  from  corn 
©istillers'  grains,  dried,  from  rye 

Distillers'  grains,  wet    

Flax  feed   

Flax   screenings    

perm  oil  meal    

Gluten  feed   

Gluten  meal    

Hominy  feed   

Linseed  meal,  new  process 

Linseed  meal,  old  process 

Malt  sprouts   

Molasses,  beet 

Molasses,  cane,  or  blackstrap   .... 


Per  ct. 

6.5 
!).2 
9.G 
9.4 
9.7 
12.7 

9.9 
11.7 
12.3 
102 
10.1 
10.9 


8.2 
7.0 
90.7 
7.5 
75.9 
11.2 
11.8 

11.9 
10.3 
12.0 

9.0 
10.0 
10.0 

7.9 

7.5 
7.8 
7.9 
8.3 
9.7 
60 
7.2 

77.4 
9.4 
8.6 
8.9 
8.7 
9  1 

10.1 

9.6 

9.1 

7.6 

25.3 

25.8 


ferct. 

4.1 
3.4 
49 
2.0 
1.6 
1.0 

5.3 
2.6 
4.0 
1.9 
2.0 
1.8 


3.5 
5.6 
0.4 
3  5 
1.0 
4.2 
4,4 

3.2 

2.1 
4.8 
4.0 
2.4 
1.5 
4.2 

6.2 
6.6 
6  4 
4.9 

2.7 
26 
3.9 

0.6 
7.3 
8.2 
27 
21 
1.1 

2.6 
5.6 
5.4 
6.1 
5.2 
6.4 


Crude 
proteiu 


Perct. 

20.4 
22.9 

7.6 
11.8 
12.5 

9.2 

36.5 
20.8 
17.1 
12.4 
12.5 
11.7 


8.9 
9.5 
0.9 
26.5 
5.7 
22.3 
19,3 

13.3 
44 

28  3 

20.9 
9.7 
2.0 

26.1 

44.1 
39.8 
376 
245 
4.6 
30,7 
23,1 

45 
166 
15.4 
22.6 
25.4 
35.5 

10  6 
36.9 
33  9 
26.4 
3,5 
3.1 


Carbohjdrates 


Perct, 

16.4 
56 
9  3 
1.8 
1.7 
2.0 

4,3 

7.5 
143 
2.2 

2.7 
2.0 


18.9 

15.9 
2.1 

14.6 
3.6 
7.1 

17.9 

28.5 
43,7 

4.8 
11.2 

9,8 
318 
24.0 

8.1 
10.1 
115 
21.4 
43.8 
11.6 
10.9 

2.8 
11.2 
15.5 
9.0 
7.1 
2.1 

4.4 

8.7 
8.4 
12.6 


N-free 
extract 


Perct. 

16.4 
57.8 
66.7 
73.2 
71.1 
70.8 

26.5 

510 
47.7 
712 
70.5 
71.6 


59.6 
60.7 
5.7 
41.0 
12.1 
49,4 
41.4 

39.7 
38.5 
42.7 
45.3 
62.4 
54.3 
30.1 

25.0 
27.4 
28.4 
34  6 
37.3 
36.3 
47.1 

13.1 
41.3 
40.5 
46.0 
52.9 
47.5 

64  3 
36.3 
35.7 
45.6 
66.0 
64.7 


At>PENDlX 


405 


Table  1.    Average  Composition  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuff 


Crude 
proteiu 


Carbohydrates 


Concentrates — con. 
By-products  of  factories,  etc. — con. 

Oat  bran    

Oat  dust    

Oat  feed,  low  grade 

Oat  hulls   

Oat  middlings    

Peanut  cake,  from  hulled  nuts  .  .  . 

Potato  flakes,  dried 

Red  dog  flour   

Rice  bran,  high  grade  

Rice  bran,  low  grade 

Rice  hulls   

Rice  polish   

Rye    bran     

Rye  feed   ( middlings  and  bran )    .  . 

Rye  middlings    

Soybean  meal,  fat  extracted   

Wheat  bran   

Wheat  feed   (middlings  and  bran) 

Wheat  flour,   patent    

Wheat  middlings,  flour    

Wheat  middlings,  standard 

(shorts)      

Wheat  screenings 

Animal  products 

Buttermilk 

Cow's  milk,  whole   

Dried  blood   

Fish  meal,  high  in  fat 

Meat-and-bone   meal,    30-40%    ash 

Meat  scrap,  high  grade   

Meat  scrap,  fair  grade    

Poultry  bone  

Skim  milk,  centrifugal   

Tankage,  over  60%  protein 

Tankage,  55-60%   protein    

Tankage,  45-55%  protein   

Whey     

Dried  Roughage 

Hay  and  cured  forage  from  grasses 
and  cereals 

Barley  hay,  common   

Bermuda  hay    

Bluegrass  hay,  Kentucky 

Brome  hay 

Crab  grass  hay    

Corn  fodder  ( ears,  if  any,  remain- 
ing), very  dry,  from  barn  or 
arid   districts    


Perct.    Peret 


6.4 
6.6 

10.2 
6.8 
7.3 

10.7 

12.1 
11.1 
10.1 
9.5 
n.3 
10.0 

11.4 
11.5 
11.4 
11.8 
10.1 

10.1 
12.3 

10.7 

10.5 
10.2 

90.6 
86.4 
9.7 
10.8^ 
6.0 
7.5 
6.7 

7.3 
90.1 
7.4 
7.5 
7.5 
93.4 


7.4 
9.7 
13.2 
8.5 
9.5 


9.0 


6.1 
7.0 
4.0 
6.0 
3.2 
4.9 

4.0 
2.5 
9.7 
11.3 
16.9 
4.8 

3.5 

3.8 
3.7 
5.4 
6.3 

5.2 
0.5 
3.7 

4.4 
3.9 

0.7 
0.7 
3.3 
29.2 
36.8 
16.6 
25.5 

01.7 
0.7 
10.5 
13.6 
19.7 
0.7 


7.7 
8.5 


Perct. 

12.2 
12.6 
9.6 
4.0 
16.3 
47.6 

7.1 
16.8 
12.1 
10.9 

3.3 
11.9 

15.3 
15.3 
15.7 
■414 
16.0 

16.8 
10.9 
17.8 

17.4 
•  13.3 

3.6 
3.5 

82.3 
48.4 
39.8 
59.3 
52.0 

24.3 

3.8 
63.1 
58.1 
51.7 

0.8 


7.0 
7.1 


Perct.   Perct. 


9.9 
8.0 


18.3 
18.7 
18.5 
29.2 
4.6 
5.1 

2.9 

2.2 

12.4 

15.8 

35.4 

1.9 

4.0 
4.7 
4.6 
5.3 
9.5 

7.6 
0.4 
4.7 

6.0 
7.4 


2.1 


29.7 
25.6 
28.3 
31.3 

28.7 


27.2 


52.3 
49.9 
53.8 
52.3 
61.8 
23.7 

73.6 
63.3 
44.3 
42.7 
34.0 
62.3 

62.7 
61.5 
61.2 
28.7 
53.7 

55.7 
74.6 
58.1 

56.8 
61.1 

5.0 
5.0 
3.8 

4.1 
5.0 
5.4 

3.6 
5.2 
2.5 
2.9 
4.2 
4.8 


47.3 
48.2 
40.7 
40.2 
42.9 


47.3 


4.7 
5.2 
3.9 
1.7 
6.8 
8.0 

0.3 
4.1 
11.4 
9.8 
1.1 
9.1 

3.1 
3.2 
3.4 

7.4 
4.4 

4.6 
1.3 
5.0 

4.9 
4.1 

0.1 
4.4 
0.9 
11.6 
11.2 
11.6 
10.4 

3.1 
0.2 
12.9 
13.0 
14.0 
0.3 


406 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


Table  I.     Average  Composition  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuff 


Dried  Roughage — con. 
Hay  and  cured  forage  from  grasses 

and  cereals — con. 
Corn  fodder,  medium  in  water   .  .  . 

Corn  fodder,  high  in  water 

Corn  fodder,  sweet    

Corn  stover   (ears  removed),  very- 
dry    

Corn  stover,  medium  in  water   .  .  . 

Corn  stover,  high  in  water 

Fowl  meadow  grass  hay 

Foxtail  or  wild  barley  hay   

Japanese  cane  fodder   

Johnson  grass  hay 

Kafir  fodder,  dry  

Kafir  fodder,  high  in  water 

Kafir  stover,  dry   

Millet  hay,  barnyard    

Millet  hay,  common,  or  Hungarian 

Millet  hay,  German 

Milo  fodder,  dry    

Natal  grass  hay  

Oat  hay   

Orchard  grass  hay  

Para  grass  hay 

Prairie  hay,  western 

Red  top  hay  

Sorghum  fodder,  dry    

Sorghum  fodder,  high  in  water   .  . 
Sudan  hay  

Teosinte  hay  

Timothy  hay,  all  analyses 

Timothy  hay,  cut  before  bloom  .  .  . 
Timothy  hay,  cut  at  early  to  full 

bloom    

Timothy  hay,  cut  at  late  bloom  .  . 

Timothy  rowen  hay  

Wheat  hay    

Hay  from  the  legumes 

Alfalfa,  all  analyses   

Alfalfa,  before  bloom   

Alfalfa,  in  bloom   

Alfalfa,  in  seed   

Alfalfa  meal   

Alfalfa  leaves   

Beggarweed    

Clover,  alsike    

Clover,  bur    

Clover,  crimson,  or  scarlet 


Crude 
protein 

Carbohydrates 

Water 

Ash 

N-free 

Fat 

e.xtraet 

Per  ct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Per  ct. 

18.3 

5.0 

(J.  7 

22.0 

45.8 

2.2 

39.3 

3.0 

4.8 

16.7 

34.2 

1.4 

12.3 

9.0 

9.2 

26.4 

41.3 

1.8 

9.4 

5.8 

5.9 

30.7 

46.6 

1.6 

19.0 

5.5 

5.7 

27.7 

40.9 

1.2 

41.0 

3.8 

3.9 

20.1 

30.2 

1.0 

11.1 

73 

9.8 

28.8 

40.4 

2.7 

7.5 

8.8 

7.0 

27.4 

47.3 

2.0 

6.8 

2.0 

1.4 

20.G 

67.3 

1.9 

10.1 

7.5 

6.6 

30.2 

43.5 

2.1 

9.0 

9.4 

8.9 

26.8 

43.1 

2.8 

28.3 

3.3 

6.5 

21.6 

37.6 

2.7 

16.3 

8.3 

5.1 

27.4 

41.2 

1.7 

13.5 

8.2 

8.3 

27.6 

40.8 

1.6 

14.3 

6.3 

8.3 

24.0 

44.3 

2.8 

8.7 

6.9 

8.0 

27.3 

46.5 

2.6 

11.1 

9.9 

12.0 

18.4 

44.1 

4.5 

9.8 

5.0 

7.4 

36.8 

39.2 

1.8 

12.0 

6.8 

8.4 

28.3 

41.7 

2.8 

11.6 

6.9 

7.9 

30.3 

40.4 

2.9 

9.8 

6.6 

4.6 

33.6 

44.5 

0.9 

6.5 

7.7 

8.0 

30.5 

44.7 

2.6 

9.8 

6.8 

7.4 

28.7 

45.0 

2.3 

9.7 

7.8 

7.4 

26.1 

45.9 

3.1 

37.4 

3.1 

3.9 

17.8 

35.0 

2.8 

10.0 

6.4 

6.1 

30.6 

45.4 

1.5 

10.6 

10.3 

9.1 

26.4 

41.7 

1.9 

11.0 

4.9 

6.2 

29.9 

45.0 

2.5 

7.2 

6.6 

9.8 

28.1 

45.1 

3.2 

12.8 

4.6 

6.3 

29.5 

44.2 

2.6 

14.9 

4  5 

5.5 

28.3 

44.0 

2.8 

15.1 

6.9 

14.4 

24.3 

.34.9 

4.4 

8.1 

6.4 

6.2 

24.7 

52.6 

2.0 

8.6 

8.6 

14.9 

28.3 

37.3 

2.3 

62 

100 

22  0 

20.5 

37.1 

4.2 

7.5 

10.0 

15.0 

30.2 

.35.5 

1.8 

10.4 

7.0 

12.2 

27.6 

40.3 

2.5 

8.8 

9.0 

14.3 

30.1 

35.8 

2.0 

66 

13.6 

22.5 

12.7 

41.2 

3.4 

9.1 

8.4 

15.4 

27.5 

37.3 

2.3 

12.3 

8.3 

12.8 

25.7 

38.4 

2.5 

7.0 

10.8 

19.2 

23.0 

37.0 

3.0 

10.6 

8.8 

14.1 

27.3 

36.9 

2.3 

APPENDIX 


407 


Table  I.    Average  Compositiox  of  Ameeican  Feedixg  Stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuff 


Carbohydrates  1 

Crude 
protein 

Ash 

Fiber 

Nfree 
e.xtract 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

G.2 

10.8 

27.0 

34.2 

7.1 

12.8 

25.5 

38.7 

7.4 

13.1 

23.1 

39.1 

6.0 

11.6 

21.9 

33.8 

6.4 

9.9 

28.5 

42.3 

6.1 

8.0 

29.9 

40.8 

7.2 

14.5 

27.4 

40.1 

8.0 

16.2 

23.2 

41.0 

7.3 

16.5 

20.4 

37.3 

11.9 

19.3 

22.5 

34.0 

5.8 

12.1 

25.9 

41.6 

7.!) 

15.1 

24.5 

37.9 

7.3 

11.4 

25.6 

36.5 

6.8 

13.3 

24.3 

37.4 

8.7 

9.1 

20.2 

.36.8 

8.6 

16.0 

24.9 

39.1 

7.4 

16.4 

27.5 

38.4 

8.2 

17.3 

26.2 

38.7 

8.6 

19.9 

24.8 

31.6 

6.7 

10.6 

27.2 

37.3 

6.8 

14.5 

27.2 

34.4 

5.7 

3.5 

36.0 

39.1 

7.2 

7.3 

30.8 

42.9 

5.5 

5.2 

43.0 

35  1 

5.4 

6.8 

44.5 

33.6 

7.0 

7.5 

38.8 

32.9 

7.0 

7.2 

42.5 

32.9 

5.2 

36 

35.8 

39.7 

11.5 

5.9 

25.7 

46.3 

5.4 

3.6 

36.3 

40.8 

14.5 

3.9 

33.5 

39.2 

3.2 

3.0 

38.9 

46.6 

6.8 

5.6 

36.8 

37.2 

7.2 

4.2 

28.0 

44.8 

5.2 

3.1 

37.4 

44.4 

2.] 

3.3 

0.0 

11.0 

2.3 

3.0 

8.0 

18.9 

2.8 

4.1 

8.7 

14.8 

2.9 

4.2 

9.3 

15.1 

3.6 

4.6 

8.0 

19.5 

1.2 

1.9 

5.2 

13.0 

1.2 

1.9 

5.5 

13.9 

1.1 

1.6 

4.3 

7.6 

Dried  Roughage — con. 
Hay  from  the  legumes — con. 

Clover,  mammoth  red   

Clover,  red,  all  analyses 

Clover,  red,  in  bloom   

Clover,  red,  after  bloom 

Clover  and  mi.Ked  grasses   

Clover  and  timothy 

Clover,  sweet,  white   

Clover,  white    

Clover   rowen    

Cowpea     

Lespedeza,  or  Japan  clover   

Pea,  field   

Peas  and  oats 

Peanut  vine,  with  nuts 

Peanut  vine,  without  nuts 

Soybean  hay   

Velvet  bean  

Vetch,  common   

Vetch,  hairy   

Vetch  and  oats 

Vetch  and  wheat   

Straic    and    chaff 

Barley   straw    

Bean  straw   

Buckwheat  straw 

Cowpea  straw 

Crimson  clover  straw 

Fla.v:  shives   

Millet  straw   

Oat  chaff  

Oat  straw    

Rice  straw 

Rye  straw   

Sovbean  straw   

Wheat   chaff    

Wheat  straw   

Fresh  Green  Roughage 

Green    forage    from    grasses    and 

cereals 

Barley  fodder   

Bermuda  grass   

Bluegrass,  Kentucky  

Brome  grass,  smooth    

Buckwheat,  Japanese    

Corn  fodder,  all  analyses 

Corn  fodder,  dent,  ail  analyses   .  . 
Corn  fodder,  dent,  in  tassel 


Perct. 

18.7 
12.9 
13.9 
22.1 
10.1 
12.2 


8.1 
14.8 

9.7 
11.8 
11.1 
16.6 

7.S 

21.5 
8.6 
7.2 
7.1 
12.3 
15.7 
15.0 


14.2 

10.5 
9.9 
8.5 

12.3 
7.2 

14.2 

8.2 
11.5 

7.5 

7.1 
11.9 
14.4 

8.4 


76.8 
66.8 
68.4 
67.0 
63.4 
78.1 
76.9 
85.1 


3.1 
3.1 
3.4 
4.6 
2.8 
2.4 
2.2 

2.9 
3.7 
2.6 
2.8 
3.5 
2.6 
10.4 

3.7 
2.8 
3.1 
2.5 

2.8 


1.5 
1.3 
1.3 
1.2 
1.5 
3.2 
1.5 

2.4 
2.4 
1.4 
1.2 
1.7 
1.4 
1.5 


0.8 
1.0 
1.2 
1.5 
0.9 
0.6 
0.6 
0.3 


408 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


Table  I.     Average  Composition  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuff 


Crude 
protein 

Carbohydrates 

Water 

Ash 

Fiber 

N-free 
extract 

Fat 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct 

80.1 

1.1 

1.6 

4.9 

11.7 

0.6 

74.9 

1.1 

2.1 

5.6 

15.4 

0.9 

73.8 

1.2 

2.0 

6.2 

16.2 

0.0 

65.2 

1.4 

2.7 

7.4 

22.3 

1.0 

79.3 

1.0 

1.9 

4.6 

12.6 

0.6 

79.7 

1.2 

1.9 

4.4 

12.2 

0.6 

78.5 

1.3 

1.0 

5.6 

12.0 

0.4 

69.1 

4.3 

2.7 

9.1 

13.8 

1.0 

64.3 

3.5 

4.9 

11.8 

14.1 

1.4 

70.9 

2.0 

2.5 

9.3 

14.4 

0.9 

76.4 

1.9 

2.4 

6.6 

12.0 

0.7 

78.7 

1.6 

1.7 

6.7 

10.7 

0.6 

72.4 

2.1 

2.9 

8.4 

13.3 

0.9 

81.3 

1.6 

1.8 

6.2 

8.8 

0.3 

77.3 

1.4 

1.8 

7.0 

12.1 

0.4 

70.3 

3.0 

5.1 

6.3 

13.8 

1.5 

69.2 

1.8 

3.0 

10.6 

14.1 

1.3 

73.9 

2.1 

3.2 

7.8 

11.9 

1.1 

87.0 

1.6 

4.9 

1.7 

4.0 

0.8 

70.8 

2.5 

2.9 

9.8 

12.9 

1.1 

72.8 

2.4 

1.7 

9.2 

13.4 

0.5 

60.7 

2.7 

3.1 

12  2 

20.2 

1.1 

78.7 

1.7 

2.6 

7.3 

9.0 

0.7 

75.1 

1.4 

1.5 

7.0 

14.0 

1.0 

78.7 

2.0 

1.7 

6.7 

10.4 

0.5 

62.5 

2.2 

3.1 

11.7 

19.3 

1.2 

72.6 

2.7 

3.6 

7.5 

12.8 

0.8 

74.7 

2.4 

4.5 

7.0 

10.4 

1.0 

80.1 

2.3 

4.7 

4.2 

7.9 

0.8 

74.1 

2.5 

4.4 

7.8 

10.4 

0.8 

70.2 

2.2 

2.9 

12.8 

11.3 

0.6 

72.9 

3.2 

4.2 

7.5 

11.7 

0.5 

75.7 

2.4 

4.1 

6.5 

10.7 

0.6 

79.2 

2.3 

5.1 

3.9 

7.8 

1.7 

82.6 

1.7 

3.0 

4.7 

7.4 

0.6 

74.9 

2.3 

4.0 

7.3 

11.0 

0.5 

73.8 

2.1 

4.1 

7.3 

11.7 

1.0 

72.7 

1.6 

3.0 

8.5 

13.3 

0.9 

75.6 

2.1 

4.4 

7.0 

10.2 

0.7 

78.2 

2.7 

4.6 

4.2 

9.5 

0.8 

83.7 

2.0 

3.0 

3.8 

7.0 

0.5 

80.0 

1.8 

2.1 

5.3 

10.4 

0.4 

81.3 

1.7 

1.5 

5.5 

9.5 

0.5 

82.4 

2.0 

3.6 

4.2 

7.3 

0.5 

83.4 

1.6 

3.6 

4.0 

6.9 

0..5 

Fresh  Green  Roughage — con. 
Green  forage  from  grasses  and 
cereals — con. 

Corn  fodder,  dent,  in  milk 

Corn  fodder,  dent,  dough  to  glazing 
Corn  fodder,  dent,  kernels  glazed 
Corn  fodder,  dent,  kernels  ripe  . . 
Corn  fodder,  flint,  all  analyses  .  .  . 
Corn  fodder,  sweet,  roasting  ears 
or  later    

Corn  fodder,  sweet,  ears  removed 

Crab   grass    

Foxtail  or  wild  barley 

Johnson  grass  

Kafir  fodder    

Millet,  barnyard  ^ 

Millet,  common,  or  Hungarian   .  .  . 

Millet,  pearl,  or  cat-tail 

^Milo  fodder   

Mixed  grasses,  immature 

^lixed  grasses,  at  haying  stage  .  .  . 

Oat  fodder  

Oat  fodder,  8  in.  high 

Orchard  grass  

Para  grass  

Red  top    

Rye   fodder    

Sweet  sorghum  fodder   

Teosinte    

Timothy   

Wheat  fodder   

Green  legumes 

Alfalfa,  all  analyses   

Alfalfa,  before  bloom   

Alfalfa,  in  bloom   

Alfalfa,  after  bloom   

Beggarweed    

Clover,  alsike   

Clover,  bur   

Clover,  crimson 

Clover,  mammoth  red 

Clover,   red    

Clover  and  mixed  grasses 

Clover,  sweet 

Clover,  white    

Cowpeas    

Cowpeas  and  corn   

Cowpeas  and  sorghum   

Horse  bean    

Peas,  field,  Canada 


APPENDIX 


409 


Table  I.     Average  Composition  of  Ajiehican  Feeding  Stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuff 


Fkesh  Green  Roughage — con. 
Green  legumes — con. 

Peas  and  oats 

Kudzu  vine   

Lespedeza,  or  Japan  clover 

Serradella    

Soybeans    

Soybeans  and  corn 


Soybeans  and  kafir 

Velvet  bean   

Vetcli,  common   . .  .  . 

Vetch,  hairy    

Vetch  and  oats  .  .  .  . 
Vetch  and  wheat   .  . 


Roots,  tubers,  etc. 

Artichoke     

Beet,  common   

Beet,  sugar    

Carrot     

Cassava    

Chufa    


IMangel    

Parsnip     

Potato     

Rutabaga  . .  . 
Sweet  potato 
Turnip    


Miscellaneous  green  forages 

Apple    

Apple  pomace  

Cabbage    

Cactus,  cane,  entire  plant   .... 

Cactus,  prickly  pear   

Kale    


Kohlrabi     

Pumpkin,  field   

Rape    

Saltbush,  Australian 
Sugar  beet  leaves  .  .  . 
Sugar  beet  tops   . .  .  . 


Silage 

Alfalfa    

Apple  pomace  

Barley     

Clover     

Corn,  well  matured  . 
Corn,  immature    .  .  .  . 


Perct. 

77.4 
G9.4 
63.4 
70.8 
7(5.4 
702 

S2.0 
82  1 
70.6 
81.8 
73.-) 
77.3 


79.5 
87  0 
83  6 
88.3 
07.4 
705 


no.o 

834 

788 
80.1 
088 
00.5 


81.8 
70.7 
01.1 

80.0 
83  5 

88  7 

91.0 
91.7 
83.3 
70.7 

88.4 
88.6 


75  4 
79  4 
75  0 
72.2 
737 
79  0 


2.0 
22 
3.5 
3.0 
2.4 
1.7 

2.1 
2.0 
2.1 
2  2 
2.3 
1.0 


1.7 
1.5 
1.1 
1.2 
1.0 
0.4 

1.0 
13 
1,1 
1.0 
1.1 
0.9 


0.4 
10 
0.8 
1.7 
3,4 
1.9 

1.3 
0.9 
2.2 
5.4 
1.8 
2.0 


2,0 
1.0 
2.0 
2.5 
1.7 
1,4 


Crude 

proteiu 


2,0 
3.5 
3,8 
4.2 
3.8 
33 


2.0 
1.0 
1.6 
1.2 
1.1 
0.7 

1,4 
17 
2  2 
12 
1.8 
1,4 


05 
1.0 
2.2 

0.9 
08 
2.4 

2,0 
1.4 
2,9 
3,7 
1.9 


3.5 
1,0 
2,6 
3.7 
2,1 
19 


Carbohydrates 


Perct, 

6.3 

8.3 
10.7 
4.8 
0,3 
5.4 

6.2 
5  1 

5.5 
5.0 
7.5 
7.1 


0.8 
0.9 
1.0 
1.1 
1.4 


OS 
1.3 
0.4 
1.4 
1.3 
1.1 


1.3 
4.6 
0.9 
1.1 
2.3 
1,5 

1,3 
1,3 
2.0 
4.4 
1.1 
1.2 


8,2 
4.5 
9.4 
90 
6.3 
5  8 


N-free 
I'Xtract 


Perct. 

10.1 
13.0 
14.7 
8.8 
9.8 
13.2 

0.2 
0,0 
8.5 
6  3 
12.0 
10.1 


15  0 
8  9 

12.0 
8.0 

28,8 
10,5 

0,1 
11,9 
17.4 

7,0 
20,4 

5,9 


150 
14,5 
4.7 
6  5 
9.7 
5.0 

43 
42 
8.4 
9.4 
6,5 
5.3 


8.6 
122 

9.4 
11.5 
154 
113 


1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
0.7 
1.0 
0.8 

0.6 
0,7 
0,5 
0.5 
0,0 
0.6 


01 
01 
0  1 
0  2 
0.3 
6.6 

01 
0,4 
01 
0  3 
00 
0,2 


0.4 
16 
03 
0.2 
0.3 
0.5 

0.1 
0.5 
0.6 
0.4 
0.3 
0.3 


1.4 
13 
1.0 
1,1 
0.8 
0,6 


410 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


Table  I.    Average  Composition  of  American  Feeding  Stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuff 


Crude 
protein 

Carboiiydrates 

Water 

Ash 

Fiber 

N-free 
extract 

Fat 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

Perct. 

80.4 

1.4 

1.4 

6.3 

9.8 

0.7 

71.4 

2.2 

3.3 

7.7 

14.5 

0.9 

75.3 

2.0 

2.5 

6.7 

12.5 

1.0 

78.0 

2.2 

3.2 

6.3 

9.4 

0.9 

72.1 

2.6 

3.8 

7.8 

12.5 

1.2 

77.6 

2.0 

1.5 

8.6 

9.7 

0.6 

69.2 

2.5 

1.8 

9.9 

15.5 

1.1 

68.4 

3.4 

2.8 

9.7 

14.6 

1.1 

71.7 

1.9 

2.0 

9.8 

13.3 

1.3 

72.5 

2.8 

3.8 

9.6 

10.0 

1.3 

76.8 

1.3 

2.8 

6.5 

11.3 

1.3 

72.8 

2.1 

3.0 

9.8 

11.6 

0.7 

77.2 

1.6 

1.5 

6.9 

11.9 

0.9 

67.7 

2.2 

2.4 

8.5 

18.2 

1.0 

72.9 

3.5 

3.9 

8.1 

10.3 

1.3 

77.0 

4.4 

2.8 

4.7 

10.6 

0.5 

90.0 

0.3 

1.5 

3.1 

4.7 

0.4 

69.9 

2.4 

3.5 

9.8 

13.4 

1.0 

70.2 

1.2 

6.4 

4.5 

15.6 

2.1 

Silage — con. 
Corn,  from  field-cured  stover 

Corn  and  clover   

Corn  and  soybean 

Cowpea     

Field  pea  

Japanese  cane  

Kafir  

Millet   

Oat    

Oat  and  pea 

Pea-cannery  refuse   

Rye    

Sorghum,  sweet   

Sorghum  and  cowpea  

Soybean    

Sugar  beet  leaves 

Sugar  beet  pulp 

Vetch    

Wet  brewers'  grains 


APPENDIX  411 

Table  II.     Average  Digestibility  of  Important  Feeding  Stuffs 

The  following  digestion  coefficients,  obtained  in  experiments  with  ruminants, 
for  some  of  the  most  important  American  feeds  are  taken  from  the  extensive 
table  in  the  unabridged  edition  of  Feeds  and  Feeding.  The  coeificients  marked 
'•H  &  M"  have  been  compiled  by  the  authors;  those  marked  "L"  are  from  the 
compilation  by  Lindsey  of  the  Massachusetts  Station;  and  those  marked  "M" 
are  from  Mentzel  and  Lengerke's  Landicirtschaftliche  Kalender. 


Feeding  stuff 


Concentrates 

Barley    

Beet  pulp,  dried    

Brewers'  grains,  dried   .  . 

Corn  cob    

Corn-and-cob  meal   

Corn  meal    

Cottonseed  meal    

Cowpea  meal    

Distillers'   grains,   largely 

from  corn    

Emmer    

Flax  seed  

Gluten  feed  

Hominy  feed 

Kafir,  ground   

Linseed  meal,  old  process 

Malt  sprouts 

Molasses,   cane,   or   black- 
strap   

Oat  hulls 

Oats    

Rice  polish    

Rye  meal   

Skim  milk   

Soybeans,  ground 

Wheat,  ground 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  feed   

Wheat  middlings,  flour  .  . 
Wheat  middlings,  stand'd 

Dried  Roughage 

Alfalfa  hay  

Barley  hay   

Bermuda  grass  hay 

Bluegrass  hay,   Kentucky 

Brome  grass  hay 

Clover  hay,  alsike   

Clover  hay,  crimson 

Clover  hay,  red 

Clover  and  timothy  hay.  . 
Corn  fodder,  dent,  mature 


No.  of 

trials 


109 

4 

9 

7 

11 

15 

13 

25 

13 

30 


Dry 

matter 


Per  (■ 
88 
75 
61 
54 
79 
90 


Crude 
protein 


Per  ct. 

78 
52 
81 
19 
52 
74 
84 


Carbohydrates 


Fiber      N-free 
"  "'^'^      extract 


Per  ct. 

78 

89 
50 
84 
93 
95 

74 

95 

88 
86 
85 
91 
70 

89 
85 


412 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


Table  II.     Average   Digestibility  of   Important  Feeding   Stuefs — continued. 


Feeding  stuflf 


Dried  Roughage — con. 

Corn  stover  

Cottonseed  liulls 

CoAvpea  hay 

Johnson  grass  liay 

Kafir  fodder   

Kafir  stover 

Millet  hay,  Hungarian  . . 

Oat  hay   

Oat  straw 

Orchard  grass  hay 

Peas  and  oats  hay 

Prairie  hay,  western  .... 

Red  top  hay   

Sorghum  fodder 

Soybean  hay   

Timothy  hay 

Vetch  hay,  hairy   

Fresh   Gree.v    Roughage 

Alfalfa   

Beet,  sugar   

Clover,  red    

Corn  fodder,  dent,  mature 

Cowpea  

Mangel   

Oat  fodder  

Pea,  field,  Canada 

Peas  and  oats 

Potato    

Rape  

Red  top  

Rutabaga   

Sorghum  fodder 

Soybean    

Timothy     

Vetch,  hairy   

Silage 
Corn,  dent,  well  matured 

Corn  and  soybean 

Kafir,  well  matured 

Oat  and  pea   

Sorghum,  well  matured   . 


Carbohydrates 

Dry 

matter 

Crude 

trials 

protein 

Fiber 

Nfree 
extract 

Fat 

Per  ct. 

Perot. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Perct. 

35 

57 

37 

66 

59 

62 

13 

41 

6 

47 

34 

79 

4 

59 

68 

47 

68 

39 

9 

57 

44 

67 

57 

46 

8 

59 

46 

60 

67 

60 

5 

56 

34 

67 

60 

75 

2 

65 

60 

08 

67 

64 

22 

54 

54 

52 

56 

61 

18 

54 

28 

00 

51 

39 

3 

58 

60 

61 

56 

55 

7 

62 

73 

58 

61 

59 

16 

58 

53 

42 

3 

60 

62 

61 

63 

53 

20 

58 

38 

61 

63 

65 

4 

60 

73 

57 

64 

44 

58 

55 

48 

50 

02 

50 

8 

67 

79 

59 

71 

67 

o 

61 

74 

42 

72 

38 

30 

72 

34 

97 

o 

66 

67 

53 

78 

05 

23 

09 

54 

59 

75 

75 

4 

68 

76 

60 

81 

59 

6 

S4 

59 

78 

94 

5 

73 

55 

63 

70 

8 

03 

81 

49 

74 

54 

10 

70 

74 

59 

68 

64 

30 

51 

90 

4 

86 

89 

87 

92 

49 

3 

61 

61 

62 

50 

o 

87 

80 

74 

95 

84 

G 

65 

44 

55 

73 

64 

23 

64 

77 

45 

75 

53 

3 

63 

48 

56 

66 

53 

14 

71 

S3 

64 

77 

72 

27 

66 

51 

65 

71 

82 

8 

69 

63 

62 

77 

83 

3 

55 

57 

62 

50 

2 

65 

75 

61 

67 

75 

3 

57 

58 

64 

56 

APPENDIX 


413 


Table  III.    A\terage  Digestible  Nutrients  and  Fertilizing  Con- 
stituents IN  American  Feeding  Stuffs 

The  data  in  this  table  which  includes  the  important  American  feeding  stuffs  are 
taken  from  the  much  more  extensive  table  in  the  unabridged  edition  of  Feeds 
and  Feeding.  The  digestible  nutrients  have  been  computed  from  the  data  in 
Appendix  Table  I  and  the  extensive  compilation  of  digestion  coefficients  given  in 
the  unabridged  edition  of  this  book.  Where  no  digestion  coefficients  are  available 
for  any  feed,  the  digestion  coefficients  for  a  similar  feed  have  been  used  and 
that  fact  indicated  by  an  asterisk.  The  total  digestible  nutrients  given  in  the 
fifth  column  is  the  sum  of  the  digestible  crude  protein,  the  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates, and  the  digestible  fat  X  2.25.  For  convenience  in  computing  rations, 
the  nutritive  ratio  of  each  feeding  stuff  is  shown  in  the  sixth  column. 

The  figures  for  dry  matter,  digestible  crude  protein,  and  total  digestible 
nutrients  are  printed  in  black-face  type,  since  these  values  are  the  only  ones 
needed  in  computing  rations  according  to  the  Modified  VVolff-Lehmann  Standards 
given  in  Appendix  Table  V. 

Ihe  fertilizing  constituents  given  are  mostly  from  an  exhaustive  compilation 
by  the  authors  of  the  analyses  reported  by  the  State  Experiment  Stations  and 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  A  fev/  values  have  been  taken 
from  Mentzel  and  Lengerke's  Landivirtschaftliche  Kalender  for  1914,  and  other 
sources. 

This  table  is  fully  protected  by  copyright. 


Feeding  stuff 


Concentrates 
Grains  and  seeds 

Barlej'   

Broom-corn  seed  *    . 

Buckwheat    

Corn,  dent    

Corn,  flint   

Corn,  soft  

Corn,  sweet  * 

Corn-and-cob  meal  . 
Corn  and  oat  feed, 

high  grade  *  .... 
Corn  and  oat  feed, 

low  grade  *    

Cotton  seed 

Cowpea   

Durra  grain  *   

Emmer  (spelt)  .  .  .  . 
Feterita  grain  *    .  .  . 

Flax  seed 

Horse  bean 

Kafir  grain 

Kafir-head  chops  .  .  . 
Kaoliang  grain  *    .  . 


Total  dry 
matter  In 
100  lbs. 


Lbs. 

90.7 
88.2 
87.9 
89.5 
87.8 
69.4 
90.7 

89.6 


90.5 
90.6 
88.4 

90.1 
91.3 
89.2 
90.8 
87.4 
88.2 
87.5 
90.1 


DiEestible  nutrients  in  100  lbs. 


9.0 
8.3 
8.1 
7.5 
7.7 
5.5 
8.5 


7.3 

6.0 
13.3 
19.4 

8.2 

9.5 
9.3 
20.6 
22.8 
9.0 
6.1 
8.5 


Lbs. 

66.8 
62.9 
49.7 
67.8 
66.1 
53.3 
64.5 

63.7 

60.6 

52.4 
29.6 
54.5 

67.9 
63.2 
66,6 
17.0 
49.1 
65.8 
56.6 
67.0 


1.6 
2.6 
2.5 
4.6 
4.6 
3.5 
7.3 

3.7 


3.1 

16.5 

1.1 

2.7 
1.7 
2.5 
29.0 
0.7 
2.3 
2.0 
3.3 


Lbs. 

79.4 
77.0 
63.4 
85.7 
84.2 
66.7 
89.4 

78.1 

75.6 

65.4 
80.0 
76.4 

82.2 
76.5 
81.5 
102.8 
73.5 
80.0 
66.7 
82.9 


11.1 
9.5 


11. 


Fertilizme 


n  1000  lbs. 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 

Potash 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1S.4 

8.5 

7.4 

16.3 

17.3 

10.0 

7.0 

16.2 

6.9 

4.0 

16.6 

6.8 

3.9 

11.8 

5.4 

3.1 

18.4 

13.8 

5.8 

6.3 

15.4 

7.5 

4.8 

14.2 

5.7 

5.1 

31.2 

15.0 

15.0 

37.8 

10.1 

14.9 

16.2 

19.0 

7.6 

5.7 

18.4 

36.2 

15.0 

9.5 

41.9 

12.4 

13.4 

17.8 

5.7 

3.1 

15.5 

16.8 

414  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Table  III.     Digestible  Nutrients  and  Fertilizing  Constituents — continued. 


Concentrates — con . 

Grains  and  seeds — 

con. 

Millet  seed,  hog,  or 

broom  corn    

Milo  grain  *    

Milo-head  chops  *  .  .  . 

Oats 

Peanut,  with  hull  *   . 

Pea,  field   

Rice,  rough  * 

Rye    

Shallu  grain  * 

Sorghum  grain  *  .  .  .  . 

Soybean    

Velvet  bean,   seed  * 
Velvet  bean,  seed  and 

pod  *    

Wheat,  all  analyses 

Wheat,  spring 

Wheat,  winter 

By-products  of  fac- 
tories, etc. 
Beet  pulp,  dried  .... 
Beet  pulp,  molasses-  . 
Beet  pulp,  wet  *  .  .  .  . 
Brewers'  grains,  dried 
Brewers'  grains,  wet  * 

Buckwheat  bran,  high 
grade  

Buckwheat  feed,  good 
grade  *    

Buckwheat  feed,  low 
grade  *    

Buckwheat  hulls  *   . . 

Buckwheat   middlings 

Cocoanut  meal,  low  in 
fat   

Corn  bran 

Corn  cob 

Cold-pressed  cotton- 
seed cake    

Cottonseed  meal, 
choice    

Cottonseed  meal, 
prime    


Total  dry 
matter  'n 
100  lbs. 


90.9 
89.3 
89.7 
90.8 
935 
90.8 
90.4 

90.6 
90.3 
87.3 
90.1 
88.3 

87.7 
898 
89.9 
89.1 


91.8 
92.4 
9.3 
92.5 
24.1 


88.8 

88.2 

88.1 
89.7 
88.0 

90.4 
90.0 
90.0 

92.1 

92.5 

92.2 


Dieesbble 


In  100  lbs. 


8.4 
8.7 
6.3 
9.7 
18.4 
19.0 
4.7 

9.9 
10.1 

7.5 
30.7 
18.1 

14.9 
9.2 
9.2 
8.7 


4.6 
5.9 
0.5 
21.5 
4.6 


10.5 


3.7 

0.4 

24.6 


18.8 
5.8 
0.4 

21.1 

37.0 

33.4 


63.7 
66.2 
58.1 
52.1 
15.3 
55.8 
64.6 

68.4 
66.3 
66.2 

22.8 
50.8 

51.7 
67.5 
67.2 

67.8 


65.2 

68.0 

6.5 

30.5 

8.7 

30.4 

30.2 

24.0 
13.9 
38.3 


42.0 
56.9 
47.3 

33.2 

21.8 

24.3 


2.4 
2.2 
1.9 
3.8 
32.6 
0.6 
1.7 

1.2 

2.6 

2.6 

14.4 

5.3 

3.8 
1.5 
1.6 
1.4 


0.8 
0.6 
0.2 
6.1 
1.5 


3.2 

2.9 

2.1 
0.7 
6.1 


77.5 
79.9 
68.7 
70.4 
107.1 
76.2 
73.1 

81.0 
82.2 
79.5 
85.9 
80.8 

75.2 
80.1 
800 
79.7 


71.6 
75.3 
7.4 
65.7 
16.7 


48.1 

45.8 

32.4 
15.9 
76.6 

79.0 
73.1 
48.1 

70.9 

78.2 

75.5 


8.2 
8.2 
9.9 
6.3 
4.8 
3.0 
14.6 

7.2 
7.1 
9.6 
l.S 
3.5 

4.0 

7.7 
7.7 
8.2 


14.6 

11.8 

13. S 

2.1 

2.6 


3.6 

4.0 

7.8 

38.8 

2.1 


3.2 

11.6 

119.2 

2.4 

1.1 

1.3 


Fertilizing  constituents 
in  1000  lbs. 


18.9 
17.1 
16.0 
19.8 
32.6 
36.6 
12.2 

18.9 

20.0 
14.7 
5S.4 


27.4 
19.8 
20.0 

18.7 


14.2 
15.2 

1.4 
42.4 

9.1 


35.7 

30.9 

21.3 

7.0 

45.3 

33.4 

13.5 

3.2 

41.8 

70.6 

63.7 


APPENDIX 


415 


Table  III.     Digestible  Nutrients  and  Fertilizing  Constituents — continued. 


FsBdine  stuff 


Concentrates — con. 
By-products  of  fac- 
tories, etc. — con. 
Cottonseed  meal, 

good  *    

Cottonseed  feed  

Cottonseed  hulls  .... 
Distillers'  grains, 

dried,  from  corn   .  . 
Distillers'  grains, 
dried,  from  rye  . .  . 

Distillers'  grains, 

wet  *    

Flax  feed  *   

Fla.x  screenings  *    .  .  . 

Germ  oil  meal 

Gluten  feed   

Gluten  meal 

Hominy  feed   

Linseed  meal,  new 

process    

Linseed  meal,  old 

process    

Malt  sprouts 

Molasses,  beet  * 

Molasses,  cane,  or 

blackstrap     

Oat  bran  *    

Oat  dust  * 

Oat  feed,  low  grade  . 

Oat  hulls   

Oat  middlings 

Peanut  cake,  from 

hulled  nuts   

Potato  flakes,  dried  * 

Red  dog  flour  * 

Rice  bran,  high  grade 
Rice  bran,  low  grade 

Rice  hulls 

Rice  polish 

Rye  bran  *   

Rye  feed   (middlings 
and  bran )    

Rye  middlings  *    .... 

Soybean  meal,  fat  ex- 
tracted     


Total  dry 


92.1 
91.7 
90.3 


93.4 


92.8 


22.6 
90.6 
91.4 
91.1 
91.3 
90.9 

89.9 


90.9 
92.4 
74.7 


74.2 
93.6 
93.4 
89.8 
93.2 
92.7 


89.3 
87.9 


89.9 
90.5 


90.7 
90.0 


88.5 
88.6 


31.6 
14.2 
0.3 

22.4 

13.6 


3.3 
12.0 
11.1 
16.5 
21.6 
30.2 

7.0 

31.7 

30.2 

20.3 

1.1 


1.0 
8.8 
9.1 
6.9 
2.0 
13.0 


42.8 
3.6 

14.8 
7.9 
7.1 

0.3 
8.0 
12.2 

12.2 
12.6 


2      38.1 


Carbo- 
hydrates 

Lbs. 


25.6 
30.7 
33.3 

40.4 

38.0 


13.3 
34.2 
35.1 

42.6 
51.9 
43.9 

61.2 

37.9 

32.6 
47.4 
59.4 


58.2 
36.1 
34.9 
37.0 
45.2 
54.9 


20.4 
67.2 
56.5 
38.1 
37.7 

12.3 
57.2 
56.6 

55.8 
55.5 

33.9 


Fat         Total 


7.8 
5.7 
1.5 

11.6 

G.6 


1.5 
12.5 

10.4 

10.4 

3.2 

4.4 

7.3 

2.8 

6.7 
1.3 


7.2 
0.2 
3.5 
8.8 
7.5 

0.7 
7.5 
2.8 

2.9 
3.1 

5.0 


74.8 
57.7 
37.0 

88.9 

66.4 


20.0 
74.3 


82,5 
80.7 
84.0 


84.6 

75.9 

77.9 
70.6 
60.5 


59.2 
53.7 
53.7 
51.1 
50.1 
82.1 


79.4 
71.2 
79.2 
65.8 
61.7 

14.2 
82.1 
75.1 

74.5 
75.1 

83.2 


1.4 

3.1 

122.3 

3.0 

3.9 


1.6 

2.5 
54.0 


58.2 
5.1 
4.9 
6.4 

24.1 
5.3 


0.9 

18.8 

4.4 

7.3 

7.7 

46.3 
9.3 

5.2 


1.2 


Fertilizine 
in  1000  Ibi 


Nitro-  K; 
Een  ^-^ 
*""        acid 


Lbs. 

Lbs. 

60.2 

39.2 

7.4 

26.6 

14.7 

3.6 

49.1 

6.8 

37.0 

8.3 

7.2 
26.6 
24.6 
36.2 
40.6 
56.8 

1.6 

3.5 

13.2 

6.2 

5.5 

17.0 

12.4 

59.0 

17.7 

54.2 

42.2 

5.6 

17.0 

16.5 

0.5 

5.0 
19.5 
20.2 
15.4 

6.4 
26.1 

2.4 

... 

2.1 
12.7 

76.2 
11.4 
26.9 
19.4 
17.4 

11.6 

20.0 

22.2 
22.6 

5.3 
19.0 

24.5 

0.9 
30.8 
15.4 

24.5 
25.1 

5.6 
5.6 

66.2 

... 

416  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Table  III.    Digestible  Nutrients  and  Fertilizing  Constituents — continued. 


Concentrates — con. 
By-products  of  fac- 
tories, etc. — con. 

Wheat  bran   

Wheat  feed   (mid- 
dlings and  bran)    .  . 
Wheat  flour,  patent  * 
Wheat  middlings, 

flour 

Wheat  middlings, 

standard   (shorts) 
Wheat  screenings   .  .  . 

Animal  products 

Buttermilk  *    

Cow's  milk 

Dried  blood   

Fish  meal,  high  in  fat 
Meat-and-bone  meal, 

30-40%  ash  *    

Meat  scrap,  high 

grade  *      

Meat  scrap,  fair 

grade  *    

Poultry  bone  * 

Skim  milk,  centri- 
fugal    

Tankage,  over  60% 
protein  *   

Tankage,  55-60% 
protein  * 

Tankage,  45-55% 
protein  *   

Whey*    

Dried    Roughage 

Hay  and  cured  forage 
from  grasses  and 
cereals 

Barley  hay,  common  . 

Bermuda  hay 

Bluegrass  hay,  Ken- 
tucky   

Brome  hay 

Crab  grass  

Corn  fodder  (ears,  if 
any,  remaining), 
very  dry,  from  barn 
or  arid  districts  .  . 


Total  dry 
natter  In 
100  im. 


Lbs. 

89.9 

89.9 
87.7 

89.3 

89.5 
89.8 

94 
13.6 
90.3 
89.2 

94.0 

92.5 

93.3 

92.7 

9.9 

92.6 

92.5 

92.5 


926 
90.3 

86.8 
91.5 
90.5 


91.0 


Disestible  nutrients  in  100  lbs. 


12.5 


12.9 
8.1 


15.7 
134 


3.4 

3.3 

69.1 

37.8 

37.0 

55.1 

48.4 

22.6 

3.6 

58.7 

54.0 

48.1 
0.8 


4.6 
3.7 

4.7 
5.0 
3.5 


3.5 


41.6 


45.1 
69.6 


52.8 


46.2 
47.3 


4.9 
4.9 


5.1 


4.7 


4S.2 
37.9 

43.5 
44.2 
40.0 


51.7 


Fat 

Lbs. 

3.0 

4.0 
0.9 

4.3 

4.3 
3.6 

0.1 

4.3 

0.9 

11.6 

11.0 

11.4 

10.2 

3.0 

0.2 

12.6 

12.7 

13.7 
0.3 


1.5 


Total 


60.9 


67.0 
79.7 


78.2 

69.3 
65.0 


8.4 
17.9 
71.1 
63.9 

61.8 

80.7 

71.4 

29.4 

9.1 

87.0 

82.6 

78.9 
6.2 


54.8 
43.4 

51.6 
51.2 
45.7 


58.6 


Nutritive 
tatio 


3.9 


4.0 


4.2 
5.8 


1.5 
4.4 
0.03 
0.7 

0.7 

0.5 

•0.5 

0.3 

1.5 

0.5 

0.5 

0.6 
6.8 


10.9 
10.7 

10.0 

9.2 

12.1 


15.7 


Fertilizing  constituents 
in  1000  lbs. 


Nitro- 


25.6 


26.9 
17.4 


28.5 


27.7 
21.3 


5.8 

5.6 

131.5 

77.4 

63.7 


38.9 

6.1 

101.0 

93.0 

82.7 
1.6 


11.2 
11.4 

13.3 
15.8 
12.8 


APPENDIX 


417 


Table  III.     Digestible  Nutrients  and  Fertilizing  Constituents — continued. 


Fertli;ine  constituents 

Total  div 
matter  In 
100  lbs. 

Dgestible  nutrients  in  100  lbs. 

Nutritive 
ratio 

in  1000  lbs. 

Feadins  stuff 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 

Crude 
proiein 

Carbo. 
hydrates 

Fat 

Total 

Potash 

Dried  Roughage 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1: 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Hay  and  cured  forage 

from  grasses  and 

cereals — con. 

Corn  fodder,  medium 

in  water   

81.7 

3.0 

47.3 

1.5 

53.7 

16.9 

10.7 

3.3 

8.9 

Corn  fodder,  high  in 

water  

60.7 

2.2 

35.5 

1.0 

399 

17.1 

7.7 

2.5 

6.6 

Corn  fodder,  sweet  .  . 

87.7 

5.9 

47.6 

1.3 

56.4 

8.6 

14.7 

4.0 

11.8 

Corn  stover   (ears  re- 

moved), very  dry  . 

90.6 

2.2 

47.8 

1.0 

52.2 

22.7 

9.4 

4.5 

12.9 

Corn   stover,  medium 

in  water 

81.0 

2.1 

42.4 

0.7 

46.1 

21.0 

9.1 

4.0 

11.5 

Corn   stover,  high   in 

water 

59.0 

1.4 

31.1 

0.6 

33.9 

23.2 

6.2 

2.9 

8.3 

Fowl    meadow    grass 

hay  *    

88.9 

6.1 

43.0 

1.4 

52.3 

7.6 

15.7 

Foxtail  or  wild  barley 

hay  *   

92.5 

4.0 

48.4 

1.1 

54.9 

12.7 

11.2 

Japanese  cane  fodder  * 

93.2 

05 

55.n 

1.2 

58.2 

115.4 

2.2 

Johnson  grass  hay  .  . 

89.9 

2.9 

45.0 

1.0 

50.1 

16.3 

10.6 

4.2 

11.3 

Kafir  fodder,  dry   .  .  . 

91.0 

4.1 

45.0 

1.7 

52.9 

11.9 

14.2 

Kafir  fodder,  high  in 

water     

71.7 
83.7 

3.0 
1.7 

38.2 
43.1 

1.6 
1.3 

44.8 
47.7 

139 

27.1 

10.4 

8.2 

Kafir  stover,  dry  .... 

Millet  hay,   barnyard 

86.5 

5.1 

40.5 

0.8 

47.4 

8.3 

13.3 

5.5 

25.3 

Millet   hay,   common, 

or  Hungarian    .... 

85.7 

5.0 

46.0 

l.S 

55.0 

10.0 

13.3 

3.6 

21.5 

Millet  hay,  German  * . 

91.3 

4.8 

49.7 

1.7 

58.3 

11.1 

12.8 

3.5 

14.4 

Milo  fodder,  dry  .... 

88.9 

1.9 

36.3 

2.8 

44.5 

22.4 

19.2 

Natal  grass  hay  *  .  .  . 

902 

3.7 

37.9 

0.8 

43.4 

10.7 

n.s 

Oat  hay   

88.0 

4.5 

38.1 

1.7 

46.4 

9.3 

13.4 

8.0 

32.7 

Orchard  grass  hay   .  . 

88.4 

4.7 

41.1 

1.6 

49.4 

9.5 

12.6 

4.0 

19.4 

Para  grass  hay 

902 

2.3 

38.7 

0.4 

419 

17.2 

7.4 

Prairie    hay,    western 

935 

4.0 

41.4 

1.1 

47.9 

11  0 

12.S 

Red  top  hay 

90.2 

4.6 

45.9 

1.2 

53.2 

10.6 

ll.S 

4.4 

18.8 

Sorghum   fodder,   dry 

90.3 

2.8 

44.8 

2.0 

52.1 

17.6 

11.8 

Sorghum  fodder,  high 

in  water 

62.6 

1.5 

32.9 

1.8 

38.4 

24.6 

6.2 

Sudan  hay   

90.0 

2.7 

45.4 

0.7 

49.7 

17.4 

Teosinte  hay  * 

89.4 

5.6 

40.2 

0.9 

47.8 

7.5 

14.6 

7.5 

42.6 

Timothy  hay,  all 

analyses    

88.4 

3.0 

42.8 

1.2 

485 

1.5.2 

0.9 

3.1 

13.6 

Timothy  hay,  cut  be- 

fore bloom   

92.8 

4.7 

42.0 

1.6 

50.3 

0.7 

1.5.7 

Timothy  hay,   cut  at 

early  to  full  bloom 

87.2 

36 

44.7 

1.2 

510 

13.2 

10.1 

418  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Table  III.     Digestible  Nutrients  and  Fertilizing  Constituents — continued. 


Fasdinc  stuff 


Dry  Roughage — con. 

Hay  and  cured  forage 

from  grasses  and 

cereals — con. 

Timothy  hay,   cut   at 

late  bloom    

Timothy  rowen  hay  * 
Wheat  'hay  *    

Hay  from  the  legumes 

Alfalfa,  all  analyses 
Alfalfa,  hefore 

bloom  *    

Alfalfa,  in  bloom  .  . . 
Alfalfa,  in  seed  *  . .  . 
Alfalfa  meal  * 

Alfalfa   leaves  *    .... 

Beggarweed  * 

Clover,  alsike 

Clover,   bur    

Clover,  crimson,  or 
scarlet  

Clover,  mammoth 
red  *    

Clover,  red,  all 
analyses    

Clover,  red,  in  bloom 

Clover,  red,  after 
bloom  * 

Clover  and  mixed 

grasses    

Clover  and  timothy  . 
Clover,  sweet,  wliite  . 

Clover,  white 

Clover  rowen 

Cowpea   

Lespedeza,  or  Japan 
clover  *    

Pea,  field   

Peas  and  oats 

Peanut  vine,  with 
nuts       

Peanut  vine,  without 
nuts  

Soybean  hay    

Velvet  bean  * 


Total  dry 
100  lbs' 


851 
84.9 
91  9 


91.4 

93  8 
925 
89.6 
91.2 

934 
90.9 
87.7 
93.0 

89.4 


81.3 


87.1 
861 

77.9 


87.8 
91.4 
91.9 
85.2 
90.3 


882 
88.9 
83.4 

92.2 

78  5 
91.4 
92.8 


Dieestble 


in  100  lbs. 


hydrates 


2.4 
8.2 
4.0 


10.6 

15.4 
105 
8.5 
10.2 

15.8 
11  6 
7.9 
15.6 

9.7 


6.4 


7.6 
8.1 


68 


4.7 
40 
109 
11.8 
10.7 
13.1 


8.6 
12.2 
8.3 

9.6 

66 
11.7 
12.0 


39.0 
35.8 
48.5 


39.0 

35.5 
38.5 
39.2 
38.7 

35.1 
3G2 
36.9 
42.8 

36.8 


37.2 


39.3 

38.8 


34,1 


39.9 
39.7 
3S.2 
43.3 
33.1 
33.7 


41.1 
40.1 
37.1 

39.6 

37.0 
39.2 
40.3 


1.4 
2.1 

0.8 


0.9 

1.6 

0.7 
1.0 
0.8 

1.3 
0.7 
1.1 
0.2 

].0 


1.3 
1.1 

0.7 
1  5 
2.2 
1.0 


1.1 
1.9 

1.5 

8.3 

3.0 
1.2 
1.4 


Total 


48.7 
54.3 


51.6 

54.5 
50.6 
49.9 
50.7 

53.8 
49.4 
47.3 
58.8 

48.7 


47.6 


50.9 
50.9 


46.7 


47.5 
46.2 
50.7 
58.5 
48.8 
49.0 


52.2 
56.6 
48.8 

67.9 

50.4 
53.6 
55.5 


17.6 

4.9 

12.6 


9.1 
10.6 
3.7 
4.0 
3.6 
2.7 


3.6 
3.6 


Fertilizine  constituents 
in  10D0  lbs. 


Nitro-       K: 


8.8 

23.0 

9.9 


23.8 

35.2 
24.0 
19.5 
22.9 

36.0 
24.6 
20.5 
30.7 

22.6 


17.3 


20.5 
21,0 


18. G 


15.8 
13.8 
23.2 
25.9 
26.4 
30.9 


19.4 
24.2 
18.2 

21.3 


5.4 


6.1 


6.3 


10.3 
6.7 
6.6 


14.6  2.2 
25.6  6.8 
26.2        5.5 


APPENDIX 


419 


Table  III.    Digestible  Nutrients  and  Fertilizing  Constituents — continued. 


1 

Fertilizing  constituents 

Total  dry 
matter  in 
100  lbs. 

Digestible  nutrients  in  100  lbs. 

Nutritive 
(abo 

in  1000  lbs. 

Fudins  stuff 

Nitro- 
een 

Phos- 

IS 

Crude 
protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Total 

Potash 

Dry  RouGHAGE^con. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1: 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Hay     from     the     leg- 

nmes — con. 

Vetch,  common   

92.9 

11.6 

42.8 

1.6 

58.0 

4.0 

27.7 

7.9 

18.6 

Vetch,  hairy 

Vetch  and  oats 

87.7 

15.7 

37.1 

1.9 

57.1 

2.6 

31.8 

10.3 

26.2 

84.3 

6.9 

37.0 

1.4 

47.1 

5.8 

17.0 

6,0 

12.7 

Vetch  and  wheat  .... 

85.0 

10.7 

41.1 

1.3 

54.7 

4.1 

23.2 

Straw  and  chaff 

Barley  straw 

Bean  straw  *   

85.8 

0.9 

40.2 

0.6 

42.5 

46.2 

5.6 

1.8 

12.0 

89.5 

3.6 

42.4 

0.7 

47.6 

12.2 

11.7 

4.2 

13.6 

Buckwheat  straw  *  .  . 

90.1 

4.2 

26.3 

1.2 

33.2 

6.9 

8.3 

1.3 

11.3 

Cow  pea  straw  * 

91.5 

3.4 

39.1 

0.7 

44.1 

12.0 

10.9 

Crimson  clover  straw  * 

87.7 

3.8 

36.5 

0.9 

42.3 

10.1 

12.0 

Flax  shives 

92.8 
85  8 

5.8 
1.0 

25.2 
41.7 

3.0 
0.6 

37.8 
44.1 

5.5 
43.1 

11.5 
5.8 

1.9 
1.8 

10.5 

Millet  straw  *   

17.3 

Oat  chaff    

91.8 
88.5 
92.5 
929 

2.2 
1.0 
0.9 
0.7 

34.3 

42.6 
37.8 
39.6 

1.2 

0.9 
0.3 
0.4 

39.2 

45.6 
39.4 
41.2 

16.8 
44.6 

42.8 
57,9 

9.4 
5.8 
6.2 
4.8 

1.3 
2,1 
1.4 

2.8 

4.5 

Oat  straw 

15.0 

Rice  straw 

15.4 

Rye  straw   

7.9 

Soybean  straw 

88.1 

2.8 

38.5 

1.0 

435 

14.5 

9.0 

1.2 

8.9 

Wheat  chaff 

85.6 

1.1 

25.7 

0.6 

28.2 

24.6 

6.7 

4.0 

8.4 

Wheat  straw   

91.6 

0.7 

35.1 

0.5 

36.9 

51.7 

5.0 

1.3 

7.4 

Fresh  Green 

Roughage 

G7-een  forage  from 

grasses  and  cereals 

Barley    fodder     

23.2 

2.3 

11.5 

0.4 

14.7 

5.4 

5.3 

1.3 

6.8 

Bermuda  grass  *  .  .  .  . 

33.2 

1.4 

17.0 

0.5 

19.5 

12.9 

4.8 

1.5 

7.4 

Bluegrass,  Kentucky 

31.6 

2.3 

14.8 

0.6 

18.5 

7.0 

6.6 

1.9 

7.1 

Brome  grass  smooth  * 

33.0 

2.9 

15.0 

0.2 

18.3 

5.3 

6.7 

2.0 

8.6 

Buckwheat,  Japan- 

ese *     

36.6 

2.2 

17.4 

0.5 

20.7 

8.4 

7.4 

2.0 

9.3 

Corn  fodder,  all  an- 

alyses *     

21.9 

1.0 

12.8 

0.4 

14.7 

13.7 

3.0 

1.1 

3.7 

Corn  fodder,  dent,  all 

analyses    

23.1 

1.0 

13.7 

0.4 

15.6 

14.6 

3.0 

1.1 

4.5 

Corn  fodder,  dent,  in 

tassel     

14.9 

1.1 

8.2 

0.3 

10.0 

8.1 

2,6 

Corn  fodder,  dent,  in 

milk     

19.9 

1.0 

12.1 

0.5 

14.2 

13.2 

2.6 

Corn  fodder,  dent. 

dough    to    glazing  * 

25.1 

1.3 

15.4 

0.7 

18,3 

13.1 

3.4 



Corn  fodder,  dent, 

kernels  glazed   .... 

26.2 

1.1 

15.8 

0.4 

17.8 

15.2 

3.2 

Corn  fodder,  dent, 

kernels  ripe 

34.8 

1.5 

21.1 

0.8 

24.4 

15.3 

4.3 

420 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABKIDGED 


Table  III.     Digestible  Nutrients  and  Fertilizing  Constituents — continued. 


Feedini  stuff 


Fresh  Green 
Roughage — con. 

Green  forage, etc. — con. 

Corn  fodder,  flint,  all 
analyses    

Sweet  corn  fodder, 
roasting  ears  or 
later    

Corn  fodder,  sweet, 
ears  removed  *    ... 

Crab  grass  *    

Foxtail,  or  wild 
barley  *   

Johnson  grass  *    .... 

Kafir   fodder    

Millet,  barnyard  .... 

Millet,  common,  or 
Hungarian    

Millet,   pearl,  or  cat- 
tail *    

Milo  fodder  * 

Mixed  grasses,  imma- 
ture    

Mixed  grasses,  at  liay- 
ing  stage    

Oat  fodder   

Oat  fodder,  8  in. 
high*    

Orchard  grass  

Para  grass  *    

Red  top    

Rye  fodder 

Sweet  sorghum  fodder 

Teosinte  *     

Timothy    

Wheat  fodder  * 

Green  legumes 
Alfalfa,  all  analyses  . 
Alfalfa,  before  bloom  * 
Alfalfa,  in  bloom  *  .  . 
Alfalfa,  after  bloom  * 

Beggarweed  * 

Clover,  alsike  *   

Clover,  bur  *   

Clover,  crimson 

Clover,  mammoth 
red  * 


Total  dry 
matter  in 
100  lbs. 


21,5 
30.9 

35.7 
29.1 
23.6 
21.3 

27.6 

18.7 
22.7 

29.7 

30.8 
26.1 

13.0 

29.2 
27.2 
39.3 
21.3 
24.9 
21.3 
37.5 
27.4 


25.3 
19.9 
25.9 
29.8 
27.1 
24.3 
208 
17.4 

25.1 


DiEestible  nutrients  in  100  lbs. 


1.0 


1.2 


1.0 

1.3 

2.4 
1.2 
1.1 
1.0 


1.7 
2.3 

34 

1.7 
0.8 
1.9 
2.1 
0.7 
1.0 
1.5 
2.8 


3.3 
3.5 
3.3 
2.1 
3.1 
2.7 
3.4 
2.3 

2.7 


12.4 


13.1 

14.2 

15.9 

14.7 
12.4 
12.1 


10.4 
12.7 

14.5 

15.2 

11.8 

4.1 

13.0 
14.0 
20.0 
12.2 
14.1 
11.9 
19.3 
15.1 


10.4 

7.5 

10.8 

13.5 

11.6 

11.8 

8.2 

8.1 


12. 


0.4 


Total 


14.3 


14.8 
16.6 

19.9 
17.0 

14.4 
14.0 

18.1 

11.9 
14.2 

20.1 

183 
15.9 


0.3 


Nutritive 


0.6 

16.1 

8.5 

0.3 

15.5 

18.4 

0.6 

23.3 

11.3 

0.5 

15.4 

6.3 

0.6 

16.2 

22.1 

0.3 

13,6 

12.6 

0.6 

22.2 

13.8 

0.6 

19.3 

5.9 

0.4 

14.6 

3.4 

0.3 

11.7 

2.3 

0.3 

14.8 

3.5 

0.2 

16.0 

6.6 

0.2 

15.1 

3.9 

0.4 

15.4 

4.7 

1.1 

14.1 

3.1 

0.4 

11.3 

3.9 

15.8 


13.:; 


13. S 
11.8 

7.3 
13.2 
12.1 
13.0 

8.5 

9.8 
16.8 

4.6 

9.8 
5.9 


fertilizing  constitu 
in  1000  lbs. 


Nifro- 


3.0 


3.0 


2.6 


APPENDIX  421 

Table  III.    Digestible  Nutrients  and  Fertilizing  Constituents — continued. 


Feadine  stuff 


Fresh  Green 
PvCUGHAge — con. 

Green  legumes — con. 

Clover,  red 

Clover  and  mixed 
grasses  *   

Clover,  sweet  *    

Clover,  white  *    

Cowpeas    

Cowpeas  and  corn  *  . 

Cowpeas  and  sor- 
ghum *    

Horse  bean  *   

Peas,  field,  Canada  .  . 

Peas  and  oats 

Kudzu  vine  *   

Lespedeza  or  Japan 

clover  *    

Serradella  *    

Soybeans  

Soybeans  and  corn  *  . 
Soiv'beans   and   kafir  * 

Velvet  bean  * 

Vetch,  common   

Vetch,  hairy 

Vetch  and  oats 

Vetch  and  wheat  .... 

Roots  and  tubers 

Artichokes  * 

Beet,  common  * 

Beet,  sugar 

Carrot  

Cassava  *    

Chufa*   

Mangel    

Parsnip  *    

Potato       

Rutabaga    

Sweet  potato  * 

Turnip     

Miscellaneous    green 
forages 

Apple  *   

Apple  pomace  * 


Total  dry 
100  lbs. 


Lbs. 


26.2 

27.3 
24.4 
21.8 
16.3 
20.0 

18.7 

17.6 
16.6 
22.6 
30.6 


20.2 

23.6 
23.8 
17.1 
17.9 
204 
18.1 
26.5 
22.7 


20.5 
13.0 
16.4 
117 
32.6 
20.5 

9.4 
16.6 
21.2 
10.9 
31.2 

9.5 


18.2 
23.3 


2.8 
29 

2.4 
4.2 

4.5 
2.1 

3.2 
1.7 
0.9 
2.7 
2.7 
3.5 
2.8 
2.4 


10 
0.9 
1.2 
0.9 
0.6 
0.4 

0.8 
1.3 
1.1 
1.0 
0.9 
1.0 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


13.0 

14.1 

10.3 

9.6 

8.0 

11.4 

10.0 

7.4 

7.1 

10.6 

13.9 

17.1 


10.2 

13.6 

7.9 

7.2 

8.9 

8.1 

13.3 

12.2 


14.6 
9.1 

12.6 
8.6 

26.4 

10.2 

6.4 
12.5 
15.8 

7.7 

24.2 

6.0 


15.6 
15.6 


0.6 

0.6 
0.3 
0.5 
0.3 
0.3 

0.3 

0.3 
0.3 
0.6 
0.5 

0.6 
0.5 

0.5 
0.6 
0.4 
0.4 
0.3 
0.4 
0.4 
0.3 


0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
3.3 

0.1 
0.4 
0.1 
0.3 
0.3 
0.2 


Total 


17.1 

17.7 
14,3 
13.8 
11.0 
13.4 

11.4 

10.9 
10.7 
14.4 
19.2 

23.0 
12.1 

14.5 
16.7 
9.7 
10.8 
12.3 
12.5 
17.0 
15.3 


15.8 
10.2 
14.0 
9.9 
27.4 
18.0 

7.4 
14.7 
17.1 

9.4 
25.8 

7.4 


0.2      16.4 
0.8  I  18.6 


5.3 

7.0 
3.3 
3.5 
3.8 
9.3 

15.3 

2.9 
2.7 
5.0 
3.6 


Nitro- 
gen 


1.3 


4.1 

10,7 

4.8 

4.6 

1.3 

4.1 

3.5 

6.6 

1.8 

5.7 

8.S 

4.3 

1.1 

4.0 

9.8 

3.2 

3.0 

5.6 

1.3 

4.5 

3.6 

6.1 

1.6 

5.0 

2.6 

6.7 

1.4 

5.1 

5.1 

6.1 

1.6 

6.3 

5.4 

5.3 

14.8 

3.2 

1.4 

4.9 

10.3 

2.6 

1.0 

8.5 

10.7 

2.6 

0.8 

3.2 

10.0 

1.9 

1.1 

2.7 

44.7 

1.8 

1.0 

4.0 

44.0 

1.1 

8.2 

2.2 

0.4 

2.2 

103 

2.7 

1.3 

4.9 

14,5 

3.5 

1.2 

5.3 

84 

1.9 

1.2 

5.0 

?^7  7 

2.9 

0.9 

5.1 

6.4 

2.2 

1.3 

2.9 

4fl0 

OS 

0.3 

1  ti 

14.5 

2.6 

0.6 

1  5 

422 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


Table  III.     Digestible  Nutrients  and  Fertilizing  CoNSTiTUENTS--co«H«Med 


Feeding  stuff 


Fresh  Green 
Roughage — con. 
Miscellaneoiis  green 
forages — con. 

Cabbage    

Cactus,   cane,   entire 

plant  *     

Cactus,  prickly  pear 

Kale    

Kohlrabi  *    

Pumpkin,  field    

Rape    , 

Saltbush,  Australian 
Sugar  beet  leaves  *  .  . 
Sugar  beet  tops  *  . . . 

Silage 

Alfalfa*  

Apple  pomace  * 

Barley  *    

Clover   

Corn,  well  matured  . 
Corn,  immature 

Corn,  from  field-cured 

stover  * 

Corn  and  clover  *  . . . 
Corn  and  soybean  . .  . 

Cowpea   

Field  pea  * 

Japanese  cane  * 

Kafir   

Millet* 

Oat*   

Oat  and  pea 

Pea-cannery  refuse  *  . 

Rye*  

Sorghum 

Sorghum  and  cow- 
pea  *    

Soybean    

Sugar  beet  leaves  *  .  . 
Sugar  beet  pulp  *  .  . 

Vetch    

Wet  brewers'  grains  * 


Total  diy 
matter  in 
100  lbs. 


8.9 

10.4 
16.5 

11.3 
9.0 
8.3 
16.7 
23.3 
11.6 
11.4 


24.6 
20.6 
25.0 
27.8 
26.3 
21.0 


19.6 
28.6 
24.7 
22.0 
27.9 
22.4 

30.8 
31.6 
28.3 
27.5 
23.2 
27.2 
22.8 


32.3 
27.1 
23.0 
10.0 
30.1 
29.8 


0.4 
0.4 

1.9 
1.7 
1.1 
2.6 
2.8 
1.2 
1.7 


1.2 
0.9 
2.0 
1.3 
1.1 
1.0 


0.5 
2.1 
1.6 
1.8 
2.8 
0.6 

0.8 
1.6 
1.5 
2.8 
1.6 
2.4 
0.6 


0.9 
2.6 
2.1 
0.8 
2.0 
5.2 


5.6 

5.8 
8.9 

4.7 
5.6 
4.5 
10.0 
5.9 
6.3 
5.4 


15.0 
12.0 
9.5 
15.0 
11.4 


15.9 
13.8 
10.1 
13.1 
11.2 

15.3 
15.3 
13.8 
12.6 
11.6 
16.1 
11.6 


16.6 
11.0 
10.0 
6.5 
15.2 
11.1 


0.2 

0.1 

0.2 

0.3 
0.1 
0.5 
0.3 
0.2 
0.1 
0.1 


0.6 
0.6 
0.8 
0.5 
0.7 
0.4 


0.4 
0.7 
0.8 
0.6 
0.9 
0.3 

0.6 
0.8 
0.9 
1.0 
0.8 
0.5 
0.5 


0.6 
0.7 
0.4 
0.3 
0.8 
1.9 


7.9 

6.4 
9.7 

7.3 
75 
6.7 
13.3 
9.1 
7.7 
7.3 


10.4 
17.3 
15.8 
11.9 
17.7 
13.3 


11.3 
19.6 
17.2 
13.3 
17.9 
12.5 

17.5 
18.7 
17.3 
17.6 
15.0 
19.6 
13.3 


18.9 
15.2 
13.0 
8.0 
19.0 
20.6 


3.2 

15.0 
23.2 

2.8 
3.4 
5.1 
4.1 
2.2 
5.4 
3.3 


7.7 

18.2 

6.9 

8.2 

15.1 

12.3 

21.6 
8.3 
9.8 
6.4 
5.4 

19. S 

20.9 

10.7 

10.5 

5.3 

8.4 

7.2 

21.2 


20.0 
4.8 
5.2 
9.0 

"8.5 
3.0 


Fertilizine  constituents 
in  1000  lbs. 


Nitro- 
een 


1.4 
1.3 

38 
3.2 
2.2 
4.6 
5.9 
3.0 
4.2 


5.6 
2.6 
4.2 
5.9 
3.4 
3.0 


2.2 
5.3 
4.0 
5.1 
6.1 
2.4 

2.9 
4.5 
3.2 
6.1 

4.5 
4.8 
2.4 


3.8 
6.2 
4.5 
2.4 
5.6 
10.2 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid 


0.7 

0.3 
0.7 


1.7 


2.2 


4.4 
3.5 


4.5 
3.8 
2.3 


7.0 


6.9 
1.9 


7.1 


APPENDIX 


423 


Table  IV.     Wolfp-Lehmann  Feeding  Standards  for  Farm  Animals 


It  has  been  pointed  out  in  Chapter  VII  that  we  now  have  more  accurate  data 
on  the  nutrient  requirements  of  various  classes  of  animals  than  were  possessed 
by  scientists  when  the  Woltf-Lehmann  Feeding  Standards  were  drawn  up.  For 
students  and  stockmen  who  desire  to  compute  rations  substantially  in  accordance 
with  the  Wolff-Lehmann  system,  but  taking  into  consideration  the  results  of 
recent  feeding  trials  at  the  Experiment  Stations,  the  authors  have  drawn  up  the 
"Modified  Wolff-Lehmann  Feeding  Standards"  given  in  Appendix  Table  V.  The 
Wolff-Lehmann  Standards,  as  last  presented  by  Lehmann  in  Mentzel  and  Len- 
gerke's  Landwirtschaftliche  Kalender  for  1906,  are  here  given,  however,  on  account 
of  their  historical  importance. 

The  standards  for  milch  cows  are  given  for  the  middle  of  the  lactation  period 
with  animals  yielding  milk  of  average  composition.  The  standards  for  growing 
animals  contemplate  only  a  moderate  amount  of  exercise;  if  much  is  taken,  add 
15  per  ct. — mostly  non-nitrogenous  nutrients — to  the  ration.  If  no  exercise  is 
taken,  deduct  15  per  ct.  from  the  standard.  The  standards  are  for  animals  of 
normal    size.     Those    of    small    breeds    will    require    somewhat    more    nutrients, 


amounting  in  some  cases  to  0.3  of  a  pound  of  nitrogenous  and  1.5  pounds  of  n 
nitrogenous  digestible  nutrients  daily  for  1,000  poimda  of  live  weight  of  anim 


non- 
limals. 


Per  day  per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight 


Dry 

matter 


Digestible  nutrients 


Crude 
protein 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 


Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 


1.  Oxen 

At  rest  in  stall 

At  light  work 

At  medium  work 

At  heavy  work 

2.  Fattening  cattle 

First  period    

Second  period 

Third  period 

3.  Milch  cows,  yielding  daily 

11.0  pounds  of  milk  . .  .  . 
16.6  pounds  of  milk  .  .  . . 

22.0  pounds  of  milk 

27.5  pounds  of  milk 

4.  Sheep 

Coarse  wool 

Fine  wool 

5.  Breeding  ewes 

With  lambs 

6.  Fattening  sheep 

First  period    

Second  period 

7.  Horses 

Light  work   

Medium  work   

Heavv  work 


0.7 
1.4 
20 

2.8 

2.5 
3.0 

2.7 


1.2 
1.5 

2.9 

3.0 
3.5 

1.5 
2.0 
25 


8.0 
10.0 
11.5 
13.0 

15.0 
14.5 
15.0 

10.0 
11.0 
13.0 
13.0 


10.5 
12.0 


15.0 

15.0 
14.5 

9.5 
11.0 
133 


0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.8 

0.5 
0.7 
0.7 

0.3 
0.4 
0.5 
0.8 

0.2 
0'.3 

0.5 


0.5 
0.6 

0.4 
0.6 
0.8 


11.8 

7.7 
6.5 
5.3 


6.5 
54 
62 


6.7 
6.0 
5.7 
4.5 

9.1 

8.5 

5.6 


54 
4.5 


70 

6.2 
60 


424  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Table  IV.     Wolff-Lehmanx  FEEDI^'G  Standards  for  Farm  Animals — continued. 


Per  day  per 

1,000  lbs.  live  weight 

Digestible 

nutrients 

Animal 

Dry 

matter 

Crude 

Carbo- 
hv- 

Fat 

Nutri- 

drates 

ratio 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1: 

22 

2.5 

155 

0.4 

0.6 

9.  Fattening  sicdne 

First  period          

36 
32 

4.5 
4.0 

250 
24.0 

0.7 
0.5 

5.0 

Second  period   

63 

Third  period   

25 

2.7 

18.0 

0.4 

7.0 

10.  Groicing  cattle,  dairy  breeds 

Age  in                             Av.  live  wt. 

months                          per  head.  lbs. 

2-  3 150 

23 

40 

13.0 

20 

4.5 

.3-  0 300 

24 

3.0 

12.8 

1.0 

5.1 

6-12 500 

27 

2.0 

12.5 

0.5 

6.8 

12-13 700 

26 

1.8 

12.5 

0.4 

7.5 

18-24 900 

26 

15 

12.0 

0.3 

8.5 

11.  Groicing  cattle,  beef  breeds 

2-  3 160 

23 

4.2 

130 

20 

42 

3-  6 330 

24 

3.5 

12.8 

1.5 

4.7 

6-12 550 

25 

2.5 

13.2 

0.7 

6.0 

12-18 750 

24 

2.0 

12.5 

0  5 

6.8 

18-24 950.  .  .    . 

24 

1.8 

12.0 

0.4 

7.2 

12.  Growing  sheep,  icool  breeds 

4-6 60 

25 

34 

15.4 

07 

5.0 

6-  S 75 

25 
23 

2.8 
2.1 

13,8 
11.5 

0.6 
0.5 

5.4 

8-11 80 

6.0 

11-15 90 

22 

1.8 

11.2 

0.4 

70 

15-20 100 

22 

1.5 

10.8 

0.3 

7.7 

13.  Groicing  sheep,  mutton  breeds 

4-  6 60 

26 

4.4 

15.5 

on 

4.0 

6-8 80 

26 

3.5 

15.0 

0.7 

4.8 

8-11 100 

24 

3.0 

14.3 

0.5 

5.2 

11-15 120 

23 

O  ') 

12.6 

0.5 

6.3 

15-20 150 

22 

2.0 

12.0 

0.4 

6.5 

lA.  Groicing  sicine,  breeding  stock 

2-3 50 

44 

7.6 

2S.0 

1.0 

4.0 

3-5 100 

35 

4.8 

22.5 

0.7 

5.0 

5-  6 120 

32 

3.7 

21.3 

0.4 

6.0 

6-  8 200 

28 

2.8 

18.7 

0.3 

7.0 

8-12 250 

25 

2.1 

15.3 

0.2 

7.5 

15.  Growing,  fattening  swine 

2-3 50 

44 

7.6 

28.0 

1.0 

4.0 

3-  5 100 

35 

5.0 

23.1 

0.8 

5.0 

5-  6 150 

33 

43 

22.3 

0.6 

5.5 

6-  8 200 

30 

36 

20.5 

0.4 

6.0 

9-12 300 

26 

30 

18.3 

0.3 

6.4 

APPENDIX 


425 


Table  V. 


Modified  Wolff-Lehmann  Feeding  Standards  for 
Farm  Animals 


Recent  investigations  of  the  Experiment  Stations  of  this  and  other  countries 
have  shown  that  the  original  VVoltl-Lehmann  Standards  are  inaccurate  in  many 
instances.  Therefore,  the  following  standards  have  been  presented  by  the  authors 
to  provide  a  more  accurate  means  of  computing  rations  substantially  according 
to  the  VVolfl"-Lehmann  method.  The  sources  of  the  recommendations  given  for  the 
various  classes  of  animals  are  shown  in  Chapter  VII  and  the  method  of  computing 
rations  in  accordance  with  these  standards  is  fully  explained  in  Chapters  VII  and 
VIII.  Modihed  standards  are  not  presented  for  growing  dairy  cattle,  gra\ving 
sheep,  and  growing  pigs  ( breeding  stock ) ,  on  account  of  the  lack  of  sufficient  data. 

In  most  instances  a  minimum  and  a  maximum  are  indicated  for  dry  matter, 
digestible  crude  protein,  and  total  digestible  nutrients.  As  has  been  pointed  out 
in  the  text,  when  protein-rich  feeds  are  cheaper  than  carbonaceous  feeds,  some- 
what more  digestible  crude  protein  may  be  supplied  than  is  stated  in  the  standards. 
This  will  narrow  the  nutritive  ratio  beyond  the  limits  here  indicated.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  amount  of  protein  should  not  fall  much  below  the  lower  amount 
indicated. 


Digestible  crude 

Total  digestible 

protein 

nutrients 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

/.  Dairy  cows 

0.700 

7.925 

To  allouance  for  maintenance  add: 

For  each  lb.  of  2.5  per  ct.  milk 

0.045-0.053 

0.256 

For  each  lb.  of  3.0  per  ct.  milk 

0.047-0.057 

0.286 

For  each  lb.  of  3.5  per  ct.  milk 

0.049-0.061 

0.31C 

For  each  lb.  of  4.0  per  ct.  milk 

0.054-0.065 

0.346 

For  each  lb.  of  4.5  per  ct.  milk 

0.057-0.069 

0.376 

P'or  each  lb.  of  5.0  per  ct.  milk 

0.060-0.073 

0.402 

For  each  lb.  of  5.5  per  ct.  milk 

0.064-0077 

0.428 

For  each  lb.  of  0.0  per  ct.  milk 

0.007-0.081 

0.454 

For  eacli  lb.  of  6.5  per  ct.  milk 

0.072-0.085 

0.482 

For  each  lb.  of  7.0  per  ct.  milk 

0.074-0.089 

0.505 

The  amount  of  dry  matter  to  be  fed  daily  per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight  to  dairy 
cows  may  range  from  15.0  lbs.  or  even  less  with  dry  cows  to  30.0  lbs.  with  cows 
yielding  2.0  lbs.  of  butter  fat  per  head  daily.  Cows  producing  1.0  lb.  of  fat  per 
head  daily  should  receive  about  21.0  to  25.0  lbs.  of  dry  matter  daily  per  1,000  lbs. 
live  weight.  The  nutritive  ratio  may  readilv  be  found  by  computation;  for 
example,  a  1,200-lb.  cow  yielding  daily  30.0  lbs.  of  3.5  per  ct.  milk  will  require 
for  maintenance  and  production  2.31  to  2.67  lbs.  digestible  crude  protein  and 
18.99  lbs  total  digestible  nutrients.  The  nutritive  ratio  should  hence  not  be 
wider  than  1:6.1  to  1:7.2. 

The  standards  given  under  Division  2  for  growing,  fattening  steers  weighing 
1,000  to  1,200  lbs.  are  for  animals  being  finished  on  a  moderate  allowance  of 
concentrates  It  will  be  noted  that  the  amount  of  total  digestible  nutrients 
is  considerably  lower  than  the  amount  indicated  under  Division  3  for  fattening 
2-year-old  steers  on  full  feed.  As  has  been  pointed  out  in  the  text,  cattle 
fed  a  small  allowance  of  concentrates  will  not  make  maximum  gains.  However, 
under  certain  conditions  this  system  may  return  the  most  profit. 


426 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


Table  V.     Modified  Wolff-Lehmann   Feeding  Standards — continued. 


2.  Growing,  fattening  steers 

Weight      100  lbs 

Weight      150  lbs 

Weight      200  lbs 

Weight      250  lbs 

Weight      300  lbs 

Weight      350  lbs 

Weight      400  lbs 

Weight      450  lbs 

Weight      500  lbs 

Weight      550  lbs 

Weight      600  lbs 

Weight     700  lbs 

Weight      800  lbs 

Weight     900  lbs 

Weight  1,000  lbs 

Weight  1,100  lbs 

Weight  1,200  lbs 

3.  Fattening  2-year-old  steers 

on  full  feed 

First  50-60  days   

Second  50-60  days   

Third  50-60  days  

^.  Ox  at  rest  in  stall 

5.  Wintering  beef  cows  in  calf 

6.  Horses 

Idle    

At  light  work 

At  medium  work   

At   heavy  work    

7.  Brood  mares  suckling  foals, 

but  not  at  work 

8.  Growing  colts,  over  6 

months 

9.  Fattening  lambs 

Weight   50-70   lbs    

Weight   70-90   lbs    

Weight   90-110    lbs 

10.  Sheep,  maintaining,  mature 

Coarse  wool  

Fine   wool    

11.  Breeding  ewes,  icith  lambs 


Per  day  per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight 


Dry 

matter 


Lbs. 

14.1 
20.7 
24.0 
25.6 
26.7 
25.3 
24.3 
24.1 
23.9 
23.6 
23.2 
22.6 
21.4 
20.2 
19.7 
18.1 
17.3 


22.0-25.0 
21.0-24.0 
18.0-22.0 

13.0-21.0 

14.0-25.0 


13.0-18.0 
15.0-22.0 
16.0-24.0 
18.0-26.0 


15.0-22.0 
18.0-22.0 


27.0-30.0 
28.0-31.0 
27.0-31.0 


18.0-23.0 
20.0-26.0 
23.0-27.0 


Digestible 
crude 
protein 


3.2 
3.3 
SA 
3.0 
2.7 
2.4 
2.2 
2.1 
2.1 
2.0 
2.0 
2.0 
2.0 
2.0 
1.8 
1.6 
1.5 


2.0-2.3 
1.9-2.3 
1.8-2.1 

0.6-0.8 

0.7-0.9 


0.8-1.0 
1.1-1.4 
1.4-1.7 
2.0-2.2 


1.2-1.5 
1.6-1.8 


3.1-3.3 

2.5-2.8 
2.3-2.5 


Lbs. 

16.6 
17.2 
17.4 
17.7 
17.9 
16.8 
15.8 
16.1 
15.8 
15.6 
15.4 
14.8 
14.3 
13.6 
13.5 
12.6 
12.3 


18.0-20.0 
17.0-19.5 
16.0-18.5 

8.4-10.4 

9.0-12.0 


7.0-  9.0 
10.0-13.1 
12.8-15.6 
15.9-19.5 


9.0-12.0 
11.0-13.0 


19.0-22.0 
20.0-23.0 
19.0-23.0 


11.0-13.0 
12.0-14.0 
18.0-20.0 


APPENDIX 


427 


Table  V.     Modified  Wolff-Lehmann   Feeding  Standards — continued. 


Per  day 

per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight 

Nutri- 
tive 

Animal 

Dry 

Digestible 

Total 

crude 

digestible 

ratio 

protein 

nutrients 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1: 

12.  Fattening  pigs 

Weight  30-50  lbs 

46.2-51.0 

7.8-8.5 

41  0-45  4 

4.0-  4.5 

Weight  50-100  lbs 

37.0-40.8 

5.5-6.0 

32.9-36  4 

5.0-  5.6 

Weight  100-150  lbs 

32.4-35.8 

4.4^.9 

28.8-31.9 

5.5-  6.2 

Weight  150-200  lbs 

29.0-32.0 

3.5-3.9 

25.8-28.5 

6  2-  7.0 

Weight  200-250  lbs 

25.5-28.1 

3.0-3  4 

22.7-25.0 

6.5-  7.3 

Weight  250-300  lbs 

22.4-24.8 

2.6-2.9 

20.0-22.0 

6.7-  7.5 

13.  Brood  sows,   tcith  pigs    .  . 

20.0-24.0 

2.4-2.7 

18.0-21.0 

6.0-  7.0 

For  the  convenience  of  those  wishing  to  compute  rations  for  poultry,  the  Wheeler 
Standards,  as  given  in  Jordan's  The  Feeding  of  Animals,  have  been  converted 
into  the  same  terms  as  the  Modified  Wolff-Lehmann  Standards  and  are  here  in- 
cluded. Because  of  the  small  size  of  poultry,  these  standards  give  the  require- 
ments per  100  lbs.  live  weight  rather  than  per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight. 


14.  Wheeler  Standards  for  poultry 
For  maintenance 

Capons  of  9  to  12  lbs.  wt.  . . 

Hens  of  5  to  7  lbs.  wt 

Hens  of  3  to  5  lbs.  wt 

For  hens  in  full  laying 

Hens  of  5  to  8  lbs.  wt 

Hens  of  3  to  5  lbs.  wt 

For  chicks 

First  2  weeks    

From  2  to  4  weeks  of  age  .  . 
From  4  to  6  weeks  of  age  . . 
From  6  to  8  weeks  of  age  . . 
From  8  to  10  weeks  of  age  . 
From  10  to  12  weeks  of  age 

For  ducMings 

First  2  weeks  

From  2  to  4  weeks  of  age  . . 
From  4  to  6  weeks  of  age  .  . 
From  6  to  8  weeks  of  age  . . 
From  8  to  10  weeks  of  age  . 
From  10  to  12  weeks  of  age 


Per  dav 

per  100 

lbs.  live 

weight 

Nutritive 
ratio 

Digestible 

Total 

crude 

digestible 

protein 

nutrients 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1: 

0.30 

2.49 

7.3 

0.40 

2.85 

6.1 

0.50 

4.12 

7.2 

0.65 

3.35 

42 

1.00 

5.54 

4.5 

2.0 

10.10 

4.0 

2.2 

9.52 

3.3 

2.0 

8.50 

3.2 

1.6 

7.40 

3.6 

1.2 

6.28 

4.2 

1.0 

5.38 

4.4 

40 

18.35 

3.6 

4.1 

17.12 

3.2 

2.7 

11.28 

3.2 

1.7 

8.02 

3.7 

1.4 

7.00 

4.0 

0.9 

4.55 

4.1 

428 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


Table  VI.     The  Feed-unit  System 

Amount  of  different  feeds  required  to  equal  one  feed  unit ' 


Feed 


Feed  required  to 
equal  1  unit 


Average 


For  dairy  cows 
Concentrates 

Corn,   wheat,   rye,  barley,   hominy   feed,   dried   brewers' 
grains,  wheat  middlings,  oat  shorts,  peas,  molasses  beet 
pulp,  dry  matter  in  roots  

Cottonseed   meal    

Oil  meal,  dried  distillers'  grains,  gluten  feed,  soy  beans  . 

Wheat  bran,  oats,  dried  beet  pulp,  barley  feed,  malt 
sprouts     

Alfalfa  meal,  alfalfa  molasses   feeds    

Bay  and  Straw 

Alfalfa  hay,  clover  hay    

]\Iixed  hay,  oat  hay,  oat  and  pea  hay,  barley  and  pea  hay, 

red  top  liay    

Timothy  hay,  prairie  hay,  sorghum  hay   

Corn  stover,  stalks  or  fodder,  marsh  hay,  cut  straw  .... 

Soiling  crops,  silage  and  other  succulent  feeds 

Green  alfalfa   

Green  corn,  sorghum,  clover,  peas  and  oats,  cannery  refuse 

Alfalfa  silage 

Corn  silage,  pea  vine  silage    

Wet  brewers'  grains   

Potatoes,  skim  milk,  buttermilk 

Sugar  beets 

Carrots  

Rutabagas   

Field   beets,   green   rape    

Sugar  beet  leaves  and  tops,  whey 

Turnips,  mangels,  fresh  beet  pulp   

The  value  of  pasture  is  generally  placed  at  8  to  10  units 
per  day,  on  the  average,  varying  with  kind  and  condi- 
tion. 

For  pigs  ' 

Indian  corn,  barley,  wheat,  oil  cakes  

Rye,   wheat   bran    

Boiled  potatoes    

Skim   milk    

Whey 


For  horses 

One  lb.  of  Indian  corn  equals  1  lb.  of  oats  or  1  lb.  of  dry 
matter  in  roots. 


1.0 
0.8 
0.9 

1.1 
1.2 


2.0 

2.5 
3.0 
4.0 


7.0 

8.0 

5.0 

6.0 

4.0 

6.0 

7.0 

8.0 

9.0 

10.0 

12.0 

12.5 


1.0 
1.4 
4.0 
6.0 
12.0 


*  The  values  for  pigs  and  horses  are  those  given  in  the  Danish  valuation 
table  and  those  for  dairy  cows  the  values  as  revised  by  WoU  for  American 
feeding  stuffs,  given  in  Wis.  Cir.  37. 


APPENDIX 


429 


Table  VII.    Armsby's  Net  Energy  Values  for  Feeding  Stuffs 

The  following  net  energy  values  for  the  most  important  American  feeds  are 
taken  from  Armsby,  Pennsylvania  Bui.  142.  These  values  were  computed  by  him 
from  the  data  in  Appendix  Table  111  of  Feeds  and  Feeding.  For  a  full  explana- 
tion and  discussion  of  the  Armsby  net  energy  values  and  the  feeding  standards 
based  thereon  see  Chapter  VII. 


Feeding  stuffs 


Grains  and  seeds 

Barley    

Bean,  navy   

Buckwheat     

Corn,    dent     

Corn,    flint     

Corn  andcob   meal    

Cotton  seed    

Cowpea     

Oats    

Pea,    field    

Rye     

Soybean     

Wheat    

By-products^ 

Buttermilk     

Brewers'   grains,  dried 

Brewers'  grains,  wet 

Buckwheat  bran 

Cottonseed  hulls    

Cottonseed    meal,    choice    

Co.ttonseed  meal,   prime    

Cow's    milk    

Distillers'  grains,  dried,  from  corn 
Distillers'    grains,   dried,   from  rye 

Gluten  feed    

Gluten    meal    

Hominy  feed   

Linseed  meal,   new  process    

Linseed  meal,  old  process 

Malt  sprouts    

Molasses,  beet    

Molasses,  cane,   or  blackstrap    .  .  .  . 
Rye    bran    

Sugar-beet  pulp,  dried   

Sugar-beet  pulp,   wet    -  .  . 

Tankage,  over  60  per  cent  protein. 

Wheat    bran     

Wheat  middlings,    flour    

Wheat  middlings,  standard    

Eay  and  dry,  coarse  fodder 

Alfalfa  hay,  all  analyses 

Clover  hay,  alsike 

Clover  hay,  red,  all  analyses 

Corn  fodder,  medium  dry 

Corn  stover,  medium  dry 

Cowpea  hav.  all  analyses 

Millet  hay,  Hungarian 

Oat  hay    

Red  top  hay    

Soybean  hay    

Timothy  hay,  all  analyses 


Digestible 

Total  dry 
matter 

Crude 

True 

protein 

protein 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

90  7 

9.0 

8.3 

866 

18.8 

16.4 

87.9 

8.1 

7.2 

89.5 

7.5 

7  0 

87.8 

7.7 

72 

89.6 

6.1 

5.7 

906 

13.3 

11  9 

88.4 

19.4 

16  9 

90.8 

97 

8.7 

90.8 

19.0 

16.6 

90.6 

9.9 

9.0 

901 

30.7 

27.3 

89.8 

9.2 

8  1 

9.4 

3.4 

3.4 

92.5 

21.5 

20,2 

24.1 

4.6 

4.4. 

88.8 

10.5 

9.1 

90.3 

0.3 

1 

92.5 

37.0 

35.4 

922 

33.4 

32.0 

13  6 

3.3 

3.3 

93.4 

22.4 

18.3 

92.8 

13.6 

11.1 

91.3 

21  6 

20.1 

90.9 

30.2 

28.1 

89.9 

7.0 

6.5 

90'.  4 

31.7 

309 

909 

30.2 

28.5 

92.4 

20.3 

12.5 

74.7 

1.1 

0.0 

74  2 

1.0 

0.0 

88.6 

12.2 

10.5 

91  8 

4.6 

0.7 

9.3 

0.5 

0.5 

92.6 

58.7 

55.6 

89.9 

12.5 

10.8 

89.3 

15.7 

14.0 

89.6 

13.4 

12.0 

91.4 

10.6 

7.1 

87.7 

7.9 

5.3 

87.1 

7.6 

4,9 

81.7 

3.0 

2.3 

81.0 

2.1 

1.6 

90.3 

13.1 

9.2 

85.7 

5.0 

3.9 

88.0 

4.5 

39 

90.2 

4.6 

3.9 

91  4 

11.7 

8.8 

88.4 

3.0 

2.2 

430  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 

Table  VII.     Armsby's   Net   Energy   Values   for   Feeding   Stuffs — continued. 


Feeding  stuffs 


Straw 

Barley    

Oat     

Rye     

Wheat    

Fresh  green  roughage 

Alfalfa,  in  bloom 

Bluegrass,  Kentucky,  headed  out 
Corn  fodder,  dent,  all  analyses  .  . 
Corn  fodder,    flint,    all  analyses    . 

Millet,    Hungarian    

Oat   fodder    

Rape     

Sweet  sorghum  fodder    

Timothy,   in  bloom    

Roots 

Beet,    common   

Beet,   sugar 

Carrot    

Mangel     

Potato    

Rutabaga   

Turnips    

Silage 

Clover     

Corn,  well  matured,  recent 

Cowpeas      

Soybeans    


Total  dry 
matter 


Lbs. 

85.8 

88.5 


25.9 
36.4 
23.1 
20.7 

27.6 
26.1 
16.7 
24.9 
32.1 


13.0 
16.4 
11.7 
9.4 
21.2 
10.9 


27.8 
26.3 
22.0 
27.1 


Digestible 


Crude 
protein 


09 
10 
0.7 
0.7 


1.9 
2.3 
2.6 
0.7 
1.3 


0.9 
1.2 
0.9 
0.8 
1.1 
1.0 
1.0 

1.3 

1.1 
1.8 


True 
protein 


0.6 

0.8 
0.5 
0.3 


1.8 
2.2 
0.8 
0.8 

1.1 
2.0 
1.7 
0.4 
0.8 


0.1 
0.4 
0.5 
0.1 
0.1 
0.3 
0.4 

0.8 

0.6 


Net 
energy 
value 


36  61 

3-J.81 

IV. 59 

7.22 


11.50 
17.77 
14.60 
13.53 

17.24 
14  06 
13.07 
15.37 
18.89 


7.84 
11.20 

9.21 

5.68 
18.27 

8.46 


7.26 
15  90 
11  05 
11.59 


Table  VIII.     Armsby  Feeding  Standards  for  Farm  Animals 

The  manner  of  computing  rations  in  accordance  with  these  standards  has  been 
fully  explained  in  Chapter  VII.  As  a  rough  guide  to  tlie  amount  of  dry  matter 
to  be  fed,  Armsby  recommends  that:  A  1,000-lb.  ruminant  receive  20  to  30  lbs., 
or  an  average  of  25  lbs.,  dry  matter  per  day,  and  the  horse  somewhat  less. 

A.     Maintenance  standards  for  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep 


Live 
weight 

Horses 

Cattle 

Sheep 

Digestible 
protein 

Energy 
value 

Digestible 
protein 

Energy 
value 

Live 
weight 

Digestible 
protefn 

Energy 
value 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Therms 

Lbs. 

Therms 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Therms 

150 

0.30 

2.00 

0.15 

1.70 

20 

0.023 

0  30 

250 

0.40 

2.80 

0.20 

2.40 

40 

0  05 

0.54 

500 

0.60 

4.40 

0.30 

3.80 

(iO 

0.07 

0.71 

750 

0.80 

5.80 

0.40 

4.05 

80 

0.00 

0.87 

1,000 

1.00 

7.00 

0.50 

6.00 

100 

0.10 

1.00 

1,250 

1.20 

8.15 

0.60 

7.00 

120 

0.11 

1.13 

1,500 

1.30 

9.20 

0.65 

7.90 

140 

0.13 

1.25 

APPENDIX 


431 


Table  VIII.     Armsby  Feeding  Standards  for  Farm  Animals — continued. 
B.     Standards  for  growing  cattle  and  sheep 


Cattle 

Sheep 

Age 

Live 

Digestible 

Net  energy 

Live 

Digestible 

Net  energy 

weight 

protein 

value 

weight 

protein 

value 

Months 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Therms 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Therms 

3 

275 

1.10 

5.0 

425 

1.30 

0.0 

70 

0.30 

1.30 

9 
12 

90 

0.25 

1.40 

650 

1.65 

7.0 

110 

0.23 

1.40 

15 

18 

130 

0.23 

1.50 

850 

1.70 

7.5 

145 

0.22 

1.60 

24 

1,000 

1.75 

8.0 

30 

1,100 

1.65 

8.0 

C.     standards  for  horses 

- 

Required 

per  1,000  lbs. 

live  weight 

Digestible  protein 

Net 

value  energy 

Lbs 

Therms 

1.0 
1.4 
2.0 

9.8 

12.4 
16.0 

Horse  at  medium  wor 

k 

"^ 

D. 


Standards  for  milch  cows  and  fattening  steers 


For  milk  production,  add  to  tlie  maintenance  standard  0.05  lb    of  digestible 
protein  and  0.3  therm  for  each  pound  of  4  per  ct.  milk  to  be  produced. 
^  For  2-  to  3-year-old  fattening  cattle,  add  3.5  therms  to  the  standard  for  growth 
for  each  pound  of  gain  to  be  made. 


E. 


Bidl-Emmett  standards  for  fattening  lambs 


Per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight 

Weight 

Digestible  crude 
protein 

Net  energy 
value 

Lbs. 
3.1-3.3 
2.5-2.8 
2.2-2.4 
1.4-1.9 

Therms 
17-19 

18-20 

17-20 

16-19 

432 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING,  ABRIDGED 


Table  IX,    Weight  of  Various  Concentrates 

In  computing  rations  for  farm  animals  it  is  desirable  to  know  the  weight  per 
quart,  or  the  bulk,  of  the  diflerent  concentrates.  The  following  table,  compiled 
from  Massachusetts  Bulletin  136  by  Smith  and  Perkins,  Louisiana  Bulletin  llJf 
by  Halligan,  and  Indiana  Bulletin  J^l  by  Jones,  Haworth,  Cutler,  and  Summers 
is  therefore  presented. 


Feeding  stuffs 


Whole  corn 

Corn  meal 

Corn-and-cob  meal    .  . 

Hominy   feed    

Gluten  feed  

Gluten  meal   

Germ  oil  meal 

Corn    bran    

Wheat    

Wheat,  ground 

Flour  wheat  middlings 
Standard   wheat   mid- 
dlings   

Wheat  bran    

Wheat     feed      ( shorts 

and  bran)    

Wheat  screenings    .  .  . 

Rye   

Rye  meal  

Rye  middlings   

Rye  bran   

Rye  feed    (shorts  and 

bran )    

Oats    

Oatmeal  

Oats,  ground 

Oat  feed 

Oat  middlings    

Oat  hulls 

Barley    

Barley  meal    

Malt  sprouts 

Brewers'    grains, 
dried     


One 
quart 
weighs 


1.7 
1.5 
1.4 
1.1 
1.3 
1.7 
1.4 

0.5 
1.9 

1.7 
1.2 

0.8 
0.5 

0.6 
1.0 
1.7 
1.5 
1.6 

0.8 

1.3 
1.0 
1.7 
0.7 
0.8 

1.5 
0.4 
1.5 
1.1 
0.6 

0.6 


One 
pound 
meas- 
ures 


Qts. 
0.6 
0.7 
0.7 
0.9 
O.S 
0.6 
0.7 

2.0 
0.5 
0.6 
0.8 

1.3 

2.0 

1.7 
1.0 
0.6 
0.7 
0.6 

1.3 

0.8 
1.0 
0.6 
1.4 
1.3 

0.7 
2.5 
0.7 
0.9 
1.7 

1.7 


Feeding  stuff 


Millet,  foxtail 

Rice  polish    

Rice  bran 

Buckwheat     

Buckwheat   flour    . . 
Buckwheat  mid- 
dlings      

Buckwheat  bran  .  .  . 
Buckwheat  hulls    .  . 

Cotton  seed 

Cottonseed  meal  .  . 
Cottonseed  hulls  .  . 
Flaxseed    

Linseed  meal,  old 
process  

Linseed  meal,  new 
process  

Flax  feed  

Flax  screenings   .  .  . 

Beans,  navy   

Cowpeas     

Peas,  field 

Soybeans    

Cocoanut  meal  .... 
Cocoanut  cake  .... 
Sunflower  seed  .... 

Beet  pulp,  dried  .  .  . 
Distillers'  grains, 

dried     

Molasses,     cane,    or 

blackstrap   

Molasses  feed 

Alfalfa  meal 


One 
quart 
weighs 


1.6 
1.2 
0.8 
1.4 
1.6 

0.9 

0.6 
0.5 
0.8 
1.5 
0.3 
1.6 


1.1 

0.9 
0.8 
1.1 
1.7 

1.7 

2.1 
1.8 
1.5 
1.3 
1.5 

06 

0.6 

3.0 
0.8 
0.6 


One 
pound 
meas- 
ures 


Qts. 

0.6 
0.8 
1.3 
0.7 
0.6 


1.7 
2.0 
1.3 
0.7 
3.3 
0.6 


0.9 

1.1 
1.3 
0.9 
0.6 


0.5 
0.6 
0.7 
0.8 
0.7 

1.7 

1.7 

0.3 
1.3 
1.7 


INDEX 


The  References  are  to  Pages 


cows,  272-4;  ewes, 
244-5;  pigs,  375; 
sheep,    342 ;    steers. 


Absorption  of  nutrients,    29-31 
Air  required  by  farm  animals, 
Alfalfa.   180-5 
Alfalfa  feed,    184 
Alfalfa  hay,   181-3 

for    calves,     284; 
327;     horses, 
poultry,    402 ; 
314 
Alfalfa    meal,    184 

for  cows,   274;   horses,   245;   sheep,   320 
Alfalfa    ])asture,    183 

for  cows,   274;   horses,   246;   pijs,   370; 
sheep,    345 
Alfalfa  silage,   184.  204 
Alfalfa  soilage,   184.  211 
Alimentary  canal,  20 
Alsike  Clover,  see  Clover,   alsike 
Amids,  10 

in  corn  crop,   15 

use   by    animals,    54 
Amino  acids,   10,  30 

absorption   of,    from   intestine,    30 
Amylase,    25 
Anabolism,   28 
Animal,    as   a   machine,    78 

composition   of,    18 
Animal  food  for  poultry,  381 
Animals  and    plants    compared,    18 
Apples    and   Apple   pomace,    198 
Apple  pomace  silage,  205 
Artichokes,    196 
Ash  in  corn  crop  at  different  stages,  14 

in   feeds,   how  determined,   12 

see    Mineral    matter 
Ashes,   wood,   for   farm   animals,   57,   352 
Available   energy,    41 

Baby   beef,    293,    305 
Bacon  production,   359 
Barley,    128-30 

for  cows,   269;   horses,   239 
poultry,    397;    sheep, 
310. 

see    Cereals 
Barley   by-products,    130-1 
Barley  feed,    131 

Barley  hay,  pasture,  and  soilage,  172 
Barley  straw,    176 
Beans,    field.    145 
Beans,    horse,    see    Horse   bean 
Beans,    velvet,    see    Velvet   bean 
Bean  straw,   176 
Beef  calves,    see    Calves,    beef 
Beef  cattle,    see    Steers 

raising,    300-4 
Beef  cows,    see    Cows,    beef 
Beet,    see   Mangels    and    Sugar   Beets 
Beet  leaves   and   tops,    194,    205 
Beet  pulp,   dried,    150 

for  cows,   269;   horses,  239;   sheep, 
Beet  pulp,  molasses,  151 
Beet  pulp,  wet,   150 

for      cows,      279;      sheep,      332, 
steers,    311 
Beet  pulp  silage,   150,  205 
Beggar   weed,    192 
Bermuda    grass,    172 
Bermuda    hay    for    horses,    242 
Bile.    25 

Bloat,   in  cattle,   24,   183,   186 
in  sheep,   183 


pigs,  362  j 
9 ;    steers. 


433 


Blood,    circulation  of,   28 

Blood  meal,   or  dried  blood,   149 

for    calves,    284;    horses,    241 
Bluegrass,  Kentucky,   168 
Bluegrass  pasture  vs.  rape  for  lambs,  346 
Bluegrass  hay    for   sheep,    342 
Boar,  feed  and  care  of,  356 
Bone    ash    for    farm    animals,    57.    67 
Bone,  green  cut,  for  poultry,  399 
Bone    meal,    150 

for  pigs,   352;   poultry,   381 
Bran,   see   Wheat  bran,   Rice  bran,   etc. 
Bread,    for    poultry.    398 
Brewers'    grains,    dried.    130 

for    cows.    270;     horses    240;    poultry, 
400;  sheep.  340;  steers,  313 
Brewers'    grains,    wet,    130 
Brome  grass,    171 
Brome  hay  for  horses,  242 
Buckwheat   and   by-products,    137 

for    poultry,    398,    400 
Bull,  beef,   feed  and  care  of,   301 
Bull,   dairy,    feed   and   care  of,   288 
Butter,  effects  of  feeds  on,   255 

yellow   color,   cause   of,   258 
Buttermilk,    147 

for  calves,  286;  pigs,  364;  poultry,  399 

Cabbage,   198 

for    poultry,    401 
Cacti.   199 
Caecum.    21,   26 
Calcium,   required  by  animals,  54-57,  66-7 

see  Lime 
Calorie,   40 
Calorimeter.   40 

respiration.   40 
Calves,  beef,   feed   and   care  of,   301-4 
Calves,  dairy,   280-7 

(For  the  value  of  the  various 
feeds  for  calves,  see  Corn,  Oats, 
etc.) 

birth  weights.  285 

calf    meals   for.    286 

concentrates    for.    283 

feeding-    ,  minimum  amount  of  milk,  286 

gains   made   by,   285 

hay    for,    284 

raising  on  skim   milk,   280-5 

raising  on   skim  milk  substitutes,   286-7 

salt  for,    285 

scours,    287 

succulent  feeds  for,   284 

water    for,    285 
Capillaries,   28 
Carbohydrates,    8,    37 

a  source  of  muscular  energy,  77 

determination   in   feeding  stuffs,    13 

digestion  and  absorption  of,  29 

effect    on    digestibility    of    other    nutri- 
ents.   47 

energy   lost    in    digesting,   41-3 
Carbonaceous    feed,    38 
Carbon  dioxid,   6 

danger  from,  in  silo  filling,  207 
Carbonic  acid  gas,  see  Carbon  dioxid 
Carrots.    195 

for  horses,  246 
Cassava.    197 
Castor   bean,    201 
Catabolism,   28 


434- 


INDEX 


Cattle,   see   Steers,   Beef  production.    Cows 
Cellulose,    8 

digestion   of,    24,    30 
Cereal  hay   and  pasture,   172 
Cereal  hay  for  horses,   242 
Cereal   pasture,   172 

for   pigs,    373;    sheep,    346 
Cereals,   117-37 

for   silage   and   soilage,    172 
Chaflf   from   the   cereals,    176 
Chaffing  forage,  46 

for   horses,   225 
Charcoal  for  pigs,   352;   for  poultry,  382 
Chickens,    see    Poultry 
Chufas,    197 
Chyle,    29 
Clover.   185-9 

alsike,   187 

bloat  from,  how  prevented,   186 

bur,    189 

crimson,    188 

Japan,   see    Lespedeza 

mammoth,    187 

red,   185-7 

for  pasture,  soilage  and  silage,   18  5 

sweet,    187 

white,   187 
Clover   hay,   red,    186 

for  calves,  284;  cows,  274;  ewes,  327; 
horses,  244;  pigs,  374;  poultry, 
402;  sheep,  342;  steers,  314 

sweet,    187 

for  sheep,   342;  steers,  314 
Clover  pasture,  for  pigs,   371;   poultry,  402; 

sheep,   345 
Cocoanut  meal  or  cake,   143 

for  cows,   272 
Cocoa  shells,   153 
Coefficients    of    digestibility,    34-6;    Appendix 

Table  II 
Colts,  see  Foals 
Concentrates,   14 

feeding  animals  exclusively  on,  60 

proper   amount  to  feed   stock,    88,    112; 
dairy  cows,  259,  261;   horses,  224, 
228;   pigs,  359,  369;  sheep,  330-2; 
steers,    295 
Cooking  feed,   46 

for  pigs,   350;   horses,   226 
Corn,    Indian,    117-21 

by-products   of,    120-2 

changes  in,   during  ripening,   14-6 

composition    of,    120 

effects  of  thick  planting  on,   158 

feeding  exclusively  to  pigs,    71-3 

for  cows,  267-9;  horses,  237-9;  pigs, 
361-2;  poultry,  396;  sheep,  336-8; 
steers,   308-10 

nutrients   in  ears   and  stover,   158 

races   of,    118 

shrinkage  of  ear  corn,   119 

soft,    119 

see    Corn   crop 
Corn-andcob   meal,    120;    see   Corn,   Indian 
Corn  bran,   122 
Corn  chop,  see  Corn  meal 
Corn  cobs,  weight  and  composition  of,    120 
Corn   feed-meal.    120 
Corn   fodder.    157.    160 

for  cows,  275;  horses,  242;  sheep, 
342:    steers,    314 

shredding,    163 
Corn  fodder   or   stover   silage,   161 
Corn  gluten  feed,  see  Gluten  feed 
Corn  meal.   119 
Corn  silage,   see   Silage,   corn 
Corn  soilage,   163 
Cornstalk  disease,   200 


Corn   stover,   157,   163 

for  cows,  275;  horses,  242;  sheep,  342; 
steers,  314 

shredded,   163 
Corn  stover  silage,   161 
Collectives  for  pigs,   352 
Cotton    seed,    137 
Cottonseed  cake,  138 

cold- pressed,   139 
Cottonseed   hulls,    140 

for  cows,   276;   steers,   316 
Cottonseed  meal,  138-40 

for    beef    cows,    301;    dairy   cows,    270; 
horses,    241;    pigs,    139,   368;    poul- 
try,   400;   sheep,    340;    steers,   312, 
317 
Cowpea,   144,  189 

for     horses.     241;     pigs,     368;     poultry. 
400;    steers.    313 
Cowpea  hay,   189 

for   cows,   275;   sheep,   342;   steers,   314 
Cowpea    pasture,    189 

for   pigs,    373;   sheep,    346 
Cow])ea   silage,    189 
Cows,   beef,   feed   and  care  of,   300 
Cows,    dairy,    247-79 

(For  the  value  of  various  feeds 
for  cows,  see  Corn,  Clover  hay, 
etc.) 

advanced  registry,   251 

as  producers  of  human  food,  247 

calculating   rations    for.    107-11,   260 

care  before   and   after   calving,   263-4 

comfort,    importance   of,    262 

composition  of  milk  of  various  breeds, 
252 

concentrate   allowance   for,   259-60 

cost  of  keep,   264-5 

dairy   vs.    beef   type,    247-9 

dehorning,   258 

drying  off,   263 

effects  of  advancing  lactation,  253 ;  age, 
253;  drought,  256;  exercise,  256; 
feed  on  richness  and  yield  of  milk, 
254-6;  temperature,  256;  turning 
to  pasture,  256 

feed  and  care  of,  247-66 

feeding   as   individuals,    260 

feeding   concentrates    on   pasture,    261 

feeds   for,    267-79 

feeds  required   by.   for   one  year,   264 

frequency    of    feeding,    263 

freshening  in  fall  vs.  spring,  264 

gestation  period.   264 

good  and  poor  producers,  249-50 

grooming,    256 

herd   records,    250-2 

kindness   in   care   of.   257 

liberal  and  meager  feeding,   255-6 

milk,    see    Milk,    cow's 

milking    machines,    257 

milking   three   times   daily,   258 

official   tests,    251 

order  of  feeding,   263 

palatable  feed,  importance  of,  262 

pasture,   supplementing  short.   261 

preparation   of  feed  for.   263 

ration  for.  should  be  well  balanced,  261 

regularity  in  care  of,  257 

rest,    importance    of,    263 

salt  for,   263 

shelter    for,    262 

substituting  legume  hay  for  concen- 
trates, 272-4 

water  for.   262 
Cow-testing  associations.  251 
Crimson    clover,    see    Clover,    crimson 
Crude  protein,   see  Protein,  crude 


INDEX 


435 


Cud,   chewing  the,  21 

Cutting  hay  and  straw,  see  Chaffing 

Dairy   by-products,    146-8 
Dairy   cows,    see    Cows,    dairy 
Diastase,    130 
Digestibility,   34-8 

coefficients  of,    34-6,   Appendix  Table  II 
depression  of,   47 
factors    influencing,    45-8 
method   of   determining,   34 
of    fgod    by    different    animals,     48 ;    by 
poultry,   3^0 
Digestible   nutrient,   20 
Digestible   nutrients   in   feeding 

stuffs,   36-8:   Appendix  Table  III 
Digestion,    19-27,    29-31 

Digestion  coefficients,   36;  At)pendix  Table  II 
Digestive  tract  of  farm  animals,  20 
Distillers'  grains,  dried,   152 

for  cows,  271;   horses,  241;  sheep,  340; 
steers,   313 
Distillery  slop,    153 

Dried  beet  pulp,  see  Beet  pulp,  dried 
Dried   blood,   see   Blood   meal 
Dried   brewers'    grains,   see   Brewers'   grains, 

dried 
Dried  distillers'  grains,  see  Distillers'  grains, 

dried 
Dried  fish,   see  Fish  meal 
Ducks,    393 
Durra,  135 

Economy  in  feeding  live  stock,   106-15 
Egg,   structure  and  composition  of,    386 
Emmer,    131 

for   cows.    269;   pigs,    363;    sheep,   339; 
poultry,   398;    steers,    311 
Energy,   38-44 

available  and   net,   41 
muscular,   production  of,   77 
net,   41 

in   feeding   stuffs,    42 
required  for  fattening,   70;  growth,   64; 
maintenance,    51:    milk   production, 
81;    work,    79,    224-5 
of    feeds,    losses    of.    42-4,    222 
see   Work 
Energy  values  of  feeds,  Armsby's,  92,  Api)en- 

dix  Table  VII 
Enzymes,    20 
Erepsin,  25 
Ergot,   200 

Ether   extract,    see   Fat 
Ewes,  breeding,  feed  and  care  of,  326-8 
Exercise    for    farm    animals,     61;     see    also 
Dairy  cows.   Horses,  etc. 

Farm      animals,      calculating      rations      fori 
86115 

composition    of    bodies    of,    18 

relative   economy   of,    70,   247 

see  Live  stock 
Fat,   9 

digestion    and    absorption   of.    29 

how  determined  in  feeds,   13 

origin    in    body,    69 

wool,    82 
Fattenins,    68-75 

comijosition  of  increase  during,   68 

factors  influencing,   70 

object   of,    68 

ration    for,    69 
Feces,   32 
Feed,  cooking,  for  farm  animals,  46 

effects  on  butter  fat.   254-6 

influence  on  body  of  pig,  71-3 


Feed,   continued 

preparation  for  farm  animals,  45-7,  see 
also    Horses,    Cows,    etc. 

regulation  of  sale,    154 

returns  from,  by  various  farm  animals, 
70 

soaking,    46 
Feeding  standards, .  84105 

Armsby's,   93-5;    Api.endix   Table   VII 

Bull  Emmet   for   lambs,    93 

Eckles'    for  dairy   cows,    100 

Haecker's  for  dairy  cows,   97-8 

Kellner's,   92 

Modified   Wolff-Lehmann,    101-4,   Appen- 
dix Table  V 

Wolff  Lehmann,     84-5,     90-2;    Appendix 
Table  IV 

Woll-Humphrev,    98 
Feeding   stuffs,    117-211 

composition.    814;   Appendix  Table   I 

control,   154 

digestible    nutrients    in,    36 ;    Appendix 
Table  III 

fertilizing    constituents    in,     214  6;    Ap- 
pendix  Table   III 

guide   in   purchasing,    155 

market  prices  not  guid('  to  value  of,  106 

mineral   matter    in,    12,    55-7,    66  7 

mixed  or  proprietary,   153 

selecting,  for  economical  rations,   106  11 

suitabilty  of,  considering  in  formulating 
rations,   86 

variations  in  composition  of,  44 

see  Feed,  also  Feeding  stuffs 
Feed   units,    95 

Fertility,    buying,    in  purchased   feeds,   215 
Fertility,    selling,    in   croi)S.    216 
Fertilizing  constituents  in  feeding  stuffs,  214; 

Appendix  Table  III 
Fertilizing     value     of     feeds,     recovered     in 

manure,    213 
Feterita,    135,    136 

for   pigs,    364 
Feterita   fodder,    165 
Fiber.    13 

digestion   of,   24 

how  determined  in  feeds,   13 

loss   of  energy   in   digesting,   41-3 
Field  bean,    see    Bean,    field 
Field   pea,    see    Pea,    field 
Fish  and  fish  scrap  for  poultrv,  399 
Fish    meal,    149 

Flax  seed   and  by-products,    141-2 
Flax  straw,    176" 
Flour,  manufacture  of,   124 

red  dog,  126 
Foals,   cost  of  raising,    234 
feed  and  care  of,  232-4 
Fodder    corn,     see    Corn    fodder    and    Corn 

forage 
Food,  see  Feeds,  also  Feeding  stuffs 
Forage,   coarse,   see   Roughage 

effect   of  curing  and  ensiling,   47 
Forage    poisoning,    200 
Foot-ton  and  footpound,  221 
Fowls,    see   Poultrv 
Fruit,    198 

for    horses,    246 
Fuel  value  of  feed,  see  Energy 

Gastric   .iuice,    22 
Germ  oil  meal,   122 

for  cows,  270 
Geese,    394 

Gestation   period,   see   Cow,   Ewe,   etc. 
Glucose,    8 

absorption    of.    29 

jnanufactured  from  corn,   120 


436 


INDEX 


Gluten  feed,   122 

for  cows,  270;  pigs,  369;  poultry,  400; 
sheep,  340;  steers,  313 
Gluten   meal,    122 

for  cows,  270;  pigs,  369 
Gluten   of  wheat,    124 
Glvcogeu,    30,    77 
Goats.    335 
Grass,    167-75 

gains   of  steers   on,   304 

nutrients  at  different  stages,  167 

see   Hay,    also    Pasture 
Grasses,    mixed,    174 
Greasewood,    198 
Green    feed    for    poultry,    401-2 
Green   forage,   digestibility   of,   47 
Grinding  grain  for  farm  animals,  45 

See   also   Cows,   Horses,   etc. 
Grit   for   i)0ultry,    381 
Ground   bone,   see  Bone  meal 
Ground  rock  phosphate,  see  Phosphate,  rock 
Growing   animals,    63  8 

effect  of  checking  growth  of,    73-5 

food   requirements    for,    64  7 

roughing  thru  the  winter,   112 

Hay,   chaffing   or   cutting,    see   Chaffing  hay 

changes   while   curing,    177 

losses    by   stacking,    179 

making,    177-9 

measurement,    179 

shrinkage,    179 

vs.  corn  silage  for  dairy  cows,  277 

see   Grasses,    also  Legumes 
Hay,   alfalfa,   effects   of  rain  on,    177 
Heat,    amount    in   coal,    pure    nutrients,    and 
feeds,   41 

energy    expended    in    body    takes    form 
of,   43,   51 

how    it    is    produced    and    regulated    in 
body,    50 

lost  in  digestion,  41 

lost    in    warming    water    drunk,    58 

requirements    for   maintenance,    50-3 

see    Energy 
Heating    water    for    cows,    262 ;     farm    ani- 
mals, 58 
Heifers,   dairy,   cost  ot   rearing,  288 

feed    and    care    of,    287-8 
Hens,    see    Poultry 
Hogs,   see   Pigs 
Hogging  down  corn,   362 
Hominv    feed    for     cows,     269;     pigs,     364; 

poultry,   398 
Honeycomb,   or  second  stomach,  21 
Horse   bean,    for   horses,    241 
Horse   power,   definition,    221 
Horses,    221  46 

(For  the  value  of  the  various  feeds 
for  horses,   see  Corn,   Oats,   etc.) 

blanketing,    227 

calculating    rations    for,    103-4 

care    of,    hints   on,    226 

carriage,   feed   and   care   of,   229 

cost    of   raising.    234 

exercise   for,   226 

factors  influencing  work  done  by,  221-5 

fattening,   229 

feeding  and  care  of,  221-35 

feeds  for,   236-46 

grade,     eff«ct    on    energy    required    for 
work  by,   225 

grooming,   227 

measuring   work   performed   by,    221 

nutrient   requirements   of,   222-5 

roughage,   excess  of  injurious,   241 

saddle  horse,    feed  and  care  of,   229 

salt  for,  226 


Horses,  continued 

speed  influences  energy  required  for 
work,    224 

stables   for,   226-7 

tyi)es    of    work    done    by,    223 

watering,    226 

wintering  farm  horses,  228 

work  horse,  feed  and  care  of,  227 
Hungarian  grass,    see    Millet 

Incubation   of   eggs,    388 

Intestinal   secretion,    25 

Intestine,    large,    digestion    in,    26 

Intestine,    small,    digestion    in,    25-6 

Intestines,    length    and    capacity    of,    21 

Invertases,   25 

Iron  in  blood,   50,  55;   in  plants,  5 

Japan  clover,  see  Lespedeza 

Japanese    cane,    174 

Johnson    grass,    173 

Johnson   grass   hay   for   horses,    242 

Kafir,    135-6,    163-6 

for  calves,  282;  cows,  269;  horses,  239, 
242;      pigs.      364;      poultry,     398; 
sheep.    339;   steers,   311 
Kafir  fodder,   164 
Kafir  silage.   165 

for   dairy   cows,    277;   Steers,   320 
Kafir    stover,    165 

for    beef    cattle,    315 
Kale,    198 
Kaoliang,    135,    136 

for    pigs,    364 
Kaoliang  fodder  and  stover,  165 
Kidnevs,    32 
Kohlrabi,   198 

Lactase,  26 
Lactoals,  29 
Lambs,    see    Sheep 

fattening,   330-3 

feed   and  care  of,   328-35 

hothouse,    333 

spring,    334 

weight  of,   at  birth,  328 

winter.    333 
Legumes  for  forage,  180-92 

for  silage,   204 

rich  in  protein  and  lime,   56,   180 
Legume  hay,   importance   of,    for   cows,   272; 
horses,     244;     pigs,     374;     poultry, 
402;    sheep,    340:    steers,    313 
Leguminous  seeds,  142-3;   144-5 
Lespedeza,    192 
Light  for   farm  animals,   61 
Lime,   55-7,   66 

required   for   growth,    66 

required   for   mninten.auce,    55-7 
Linseed  meal  or  cake,    141 

for  calves,  282;  cows,  271;  horses,  241; 
pigs,  368;  poultry.  400;  sheep, 
340;    steers,    312 

old  and   new  ijrocess,    141 
Lipase,   25 
Liver,    25 

Loco   poisoning,    201 
Lymph    and   lymphatic   system,    28 

Maintaining  farm   animals,    50-62 
Maintenance  ration,  see  Ration,  maintenance 
Maize,    see    Corn 
Malt,    130 
Maltase,   26 

Malt  sugar,    8,    26,    130 
Malt  sprouts,    130 
for   cows,    270 


INDEX 


437 


Mammoth  clover,  see  Clover,  mammoth 
Mangels,    194 

dangerous    to   rams    or    wethers,    194 
for  cows,  277;   pigs,   374;   poultry,   401; 

sheep,   343 
see   Roots 
Manure,    212-19 

care   of,   to  prevent  loss.  219 
composition   and   value,   217 
essential  elements  in,  212 
fertilizing  constituents  recovered  in,  213 
losses    in,   218 
value   as   a   fertilizer,    212 
Manurial    value    of    feeds,    215 
Manyplies,    21  ,     „    „  „ 

Mare,    brood,    feed   and  care   of,   230-2 
Margin   in   fattening   live   stock,    291 
Marsh    gas,    or   methane,    24,    32,    41 
Marsh    hav,    174 

for    sheep,    342 
Mastication,    21 

energy    lost   in,    41-3 
Meat   for    poultry,    398 
Meat,    marbling   of,    68 
Meat  meal,    see    Tankage 
Meat  scrap,    149 

for   poultry,   398 
Melons,    198 
Metabolism,   27 

Middlings,    see    Wheat    middlings,    Oat    mid- 
dlings,   etc. 
Milch   cows,    see   Cows 
Milk   albumin    for    poultry,    399 
Milk,   cows,   64.    146,   252-8 

color   of,    affected   by   feed,   258 
colostrum,    64 
composition    of,    64,    252 

factors    lurtuencing,    252  8 
effects    of    rich    on    young    animals,    146 
fat,   source  of,   in,   81 
flavor,    factors    influencing,    258 
for   calves,    280,    286;    foals,    232 
odors   in,    due   to   feed,    258 
yield,    factors    influencing,    253-8 
yield   of   great   dairy   cows,   252,   268 
Milk,   of    different    animals,    64 
Milk,   production  of,   80-1 

nutrients   required  for,   81 
secretion    of,    80 
Milking    machines,    257 
Millet    seed.    136 

for  poultry,   398;   steers,  311 
Millet   hay,    171-2 

for  horses,  242;  lambs,  342 
Milo,    136 

for  horses,  239;  pigs,  364;  poultry,  398; 
sheep,    339;    steers,    311 
Milo    fodder    and    stover,    165 
Mineral   matter,    7,    12,    54,    66 
digestion    of,    31 
effects    on    animals    of   lack   of,    56,    66, 

71  3 
for    colts,    234;     cows,     81;     pigs,     66, 

71-3;    poultry,    380 
importance  of,   in   food,   54 
in   feeding  stuffs,    12,    56 
required   for  growth,   66,   71-3 
required   for   maintenance,   54-7 
see   Calcium   and   Phosphorus 
Mixed    feeds,    153 
Molasses,   beet,   151 

for  horses,  239;  sheep,  339;  steers,  312 
Molasses,    cane,    152 

for  horses,   239;    steers,    311 
Molasses-beet  pulp,  see  Beet  pulp,  molasses 
Molasses   feeds,    152 
for    horses,    239 
Molassine   meal,    152 


Mules,   221,   228 

Muscular  contraction,   51,   77 

Muscular   energy,    production   of,    77 

Net   energy,   see    Energy,    net 
Nitrogen  in  feeds  as  a  fertilizer,  215;  Appen- 
dix Table   III 
Nitrogen-free    extract    in    feeds,    how    deter- 
mined,   13 
Nitrogenous   comiiounds   in  plants,   9 
Nitrogenous    feed,    38 
Nutrients.    19 

digestible,    20,    36 

distribution  and  use  of  absorbed,  31 

required  by  various  animals,  see  Horse, 
Cows,   etc. 

total  digestible,   37,   38 
Nutritive    ratio,    37 

how  calculated  and  expressed,  38 

narrow   and   wide,   37 

Oat  bv-products,   128 
Oats,   126 

clipped,    127 

for  calves,  283;  cows,  269;  foals,  232, 
233;  horses,  236-7;  pigs,  363; 
poultry,  397;  sheep,  339;  steers, 
311 

sprouted,  for  poultry,  401 

see    Cereals 
Oat    straw,    176 

for  horses,  243;  sheep,  342;  steers,  318 
Oil   cake,    see    Linseed   meal  or   cake 
Oils,    see   Pat 
Orchard  grass,   171 
Oyster  shells   for  poultry,   381 

Palatability,    26,    88 

Pancreas    and   pancreatic   juice,   25 

Parsnips,    195 

Pasturage  vs.  soilage  for  cows,  209 

Pasture,    abuse  of,    175 

for  beef  cattle,   304-5;  horses,   246; 
pigs,    369-73;    poultry,    402;    sheep, 
345 
Paunch,   21,    24 
Pea-cannery  refuse,   189,  204 
Peanut  and  bv-products.    143 
Peanuts   for   pigs,    143,   368,   373 
Pea,    field,    144,    189 

for  horses,  241;  pigs.  368,  372;  poultry, 
400;    sheep,    340 
Peavine   silage,   204 

fattening  sheep  on,  345 
Pentosans,    8 
Pentose.   13 
Pepsin,   23 
Peptones,    23 

Phosphate,     ground     rock,     for     farm     ani- 
mals, 57,  67 
Phosphoric  acid  in  feeds  as  a  fertilizer,  215; 

Appendix  Table   III 
Phosphorus,   effect  of   low   supply,   56.   66 
feeds  low  in,   and  rich  in,   56 
in   bran,    124 

required   for   maintenance,    55 
required  for  growth,   66 
Pigs,   347-76  .  ,     ,      , 

(For    value    of    various    feeds    for 
pigs    see    Corn,    Clover    hay,    etc.) 
bacon   production,    359 
birth    weight    of,    357 
body    of.    composition,    19 
breed   tests,   354 
digestibility    of    food    by,    48 
dressed  carcass,  per  cent  yielded  by,  347 
exercise    for,    352 
fattening,    359 


438 


INDEX 


Pigs,  continued 

feed    eaten    daily,    347 

feeds   for,   361-76 

feeding  coini  exclusively,   71-3 

following    steers,    299 

gains  from  birth  to  maturity,  347 

ground    bone    for,    352 

hogging    down    corn,    362 

hogging   down   ripe   grain,    373 

influence  of  feed  on  body,   71-3 

mineral  matter,  for.   71-3,   352 

number   in   litter,    356 

nutrient   requirements    of,    348 

l)reparation    of    feed    for,    349-50 

returns  from,  comjiared  with  other  farm 
animals,    70,    347 

salt  required   by,   352 

self   feeders   for,    351 

shelter   for,   352 

sow,   see   Sows 

strength   of   bones   affected  by   feed,   66, 
71-3 

stubble   fields,    gleaning,    373 

tuberculosis,  thru  dairy  by-products,  147 

types   of,   354 

■water  required  by,   350 
Plants,   composition,     at    different    stages    of 
maturity,  14-6,  44 
elements  present  in,  5 
food  of,  5-7 
how  they  grow,  5-11 
support  animal  life,    11 
Plant  substances,   how  grouped,   11-3 
Poisonous   plants,    200-1 
Pork,    effects   of  feeds   on,    359 
Potash  in  feeds  as  a  fertilizer,   215;   Appen- 
dix Table  III 
Potatoes,   195 

for  cows,  278;  horses,  246;  pigs,  374 
Poultry,   377-402 

(For    the    value    of    different    feeds 
for  poultry  see  Corn,   Wheat,   etc.) 

animal  food  for,    381 

brooding,   artificial,  390 

brooding  chicks  with  hens,   389 

charcoal   for.    382 

cockerels,    393 

condiments   for,    382  « 

digestibility   of   feeds   by,    380 

digestive  system  of,   378 

ducks,   393 

eggs,   structure  and  composition  of,   386 

feeding   chicks,   391-2 

feeding    laying   hens,    384 

feeding   standards    for,    380 

green   feeds   for,    383 

grit  for,   381 

hatching    eggs    with    hens,    389 

hints  on   feeding,   394 

incubation,    388 

mash   for,   383 

mineral    matter    for,    380 

nutrient  requirements  of,  380 

oyster   shells  for,    381 

preparation   of  feed  for,   383 

pullets,  392 

rations  for  laying  hens,   384 

returns  from,  compared  with  other  farm 
animals,   70 

salt   for,    381 

saving  eggs  for  hatching,  388 

selecting   the    flock,    387 

shelter    for,    382 

turkeys.  394 

types    of   fowls,    383 

water   for.    381 
Prairie  hay,   174 

for  cows,   276;   horses,  242;   sheep,   342 


Preparation  of  feeds,  45-7 
Prickly  jjear,    199 
Proprietary  feeds,   153 
Protein,   911 

amount    in    rations,    adapting    to    local 

conditions.    111 
complete   and    incomplete,    10,    66 
crude,    10 

how  determined  in  feeds.  12 
digestion   and   absorption   of,    30 
fat  formed  from,  69 

required    by    cows,    81,    261;    fattening 
cattle,     292;     horses,     224;     sheep, 
82;    pigs,   348;    poultry,   380 
required  for  fattening,   69;   growth,  64; 
maintenance,    53 ;    milk    production, 
81;   wool   production,   82 
Proteoses,    23,    30 
Protoiilasm,    plant,    7 
Prussic   acid,   plants   carrying,   200 
Ptyalin,    22 
Pumpkins,    198 

Quarters  for  farm  animals,  see  Shelter 
Quiet,    importance   of,    for   farm   animals,   61 

Ram,  feed  and  care  of,   328" 
Rape,    dwarf   Essex,    197 

for   pigs,    346;    sheep,   371 
Rations,   20 

balanced   20 

bulkiness   of,    importance   of,    87 
calculating,  for  dairy  cows,  98,   107-11; 
steer,  90-2,  93-4;  work  horse,  103-4 
economical,    for   farm   animals,    106-15 
factors  affecting  digestibility  of,  44-9 
general  hints  on  computing,   86-90 
maintenance,  50-62 

economical,   43,   52 
for    various     farm     animals.     Appendix 
Tables   IV   and   V,   see   also  Horse, 
Pig,  etc. 
Red  clover,   see  Clover,   red 
Red  dog   flour,    126 

for   pigs,    367 
Red  top   grass,    170 

Regularity,  importance  of,  for  farm  animals, 
61;   for  dairy  cows,  257;  fattening 
cattle,    299;    horses,    227;    poultry, 
395;    sheep,    332 
Rennin,    23 

Respiration   apparatus,    39 
Rice,    133 

for    horses,    239;    poultry,    398;    steers, 
311 
Rice  bran,    133 

Rice  by-products  for   pigs,    369 
Rice  hulls,   dangerous  to  animals,  133 
Rice  polish,   134 
Rice  straw,    177 

Rock  phosphate,    see    Phosphate,    rock 
Roots   and  tubers,   193-7 

costly    compared    with    corn    silage,    194 
for  cows,  277-8;  horses,  246;  pigs,  373; 
poultry,    401;    sheep,    343;    steers, 
320 
Roughages,   13 

losses  of   energy  in   digestion   of,   43 
necessity  of,  for  farm  animals,   60 
Ruminants,   20 

digestion  of,  24,   48 
Rutabagas,    194 

for  cows,  278;  horses,  246;  poultry,  401 
Rye,    131 

for  cows,  269;   horses,  239;  pigs,  363; 

poultry,   398 
see   Cereal" 


INDEX 


439 


Rye    hay,    172 
Rye  pasture,    172 
Rye    straw.    176 

Sagebrush,    198 

Saliva,    actipu   on   food,   22 

Salt,   common,    57 

for  calves,  285;  cows,  263;  horses,  226; 
pigs,     352;     ])oultry,     381;     sheep, 
325;    steers,    299 
influence    of,    on    digestibility,    48 
need  of.  by  farm  animals,  55,  57 
Saltbush.    198  ' 
.Salvage    grain,    153 

for   ijoultry,    398 
Scarlet   clover,    see   Crimson   clover 
Scours   in   calves,    287 
Screenings,   see   Wheat  screenings 
Self    feeders    for    pigs,    351;    poultry,    385; 

sheep,  326 ;  steers,  297 
Shallu,    135,   165 
Sheep,  322-46 

(For    the    value    of    different    feeds 
for    sheep,    see    Corn,    Clover    hay, 
etc.) 
age,  influence  of,  on  gains,  324 
cost    of   gains    by,    337 
danger  from  feeding  mangels,   194,   343 
dipping,   331 

dressed  carcass  yielded  by,  333 
exercise  for,  324 
fattening,    330-3 

amount    of    concentrates    for,     332 
different    ages,    324 
length    of   feeding   period,    331 
various  methods  of.  330-3 
feeding   and   care   of,    322  35 
feed  racks   for,   3-6 
feeds    for,    336-46 
flock,  proiier  size  of,   323 
gains   of,    324,    331 
general    problems    in    sheep    husbandry, 

322-6 
gestation  period.   328 
preparation  of   feed   for,   325 
returns  compared   with  other  farm  ani- 
mals,   70.    322 
salt  for,  325 
self  feeders   for,   326 
shelter  for.   324 
shrinkage  in  shipping,  333 
stomach   worms,    330 
types   of,    323 
water  required  by,   325 
wool   production,   see  Wool 
see   Ewes,   Lambs,   and   Ram 
Shelter,    for    cows,    262 ;    farm    animals,    53 ; 
horses,    226;     pigs,     352;     poultry. 
382;   sheep,   324,    328;   steers,   297 
Shock   corn,    162 

for   steers,    309 
see  Corn  fodder 
Shorts,   see  Middlings,   wheat 
Shredding  corn  forage,   163 
Silage,  202-9 

advantages  of.  203 
alfalfa,  184.  204 
amount   to   feed.    205 
clover.    187.   204 
Silage,  corn,   159-61,  204 

for    beef   cows,    301;    dairy   cows,    276; 
ewes,  327;  horses,  246;  pigs,  374; 
poultry,   401;   sheep,   343-5;   steers, 
316-20 
vs.  corn  fodder,   160 
vs.   hay  for   cows.    277 
vs.  roots,   194 


Silage,   crops   suitable   for,   205 
cured  corn  fodder  for,    161 
digestibility   of,    47 
mouldy,   dangerous,  205 
preservation,    manner    of,    202 
sorghums    for.    165 

southern    vs.    northern    corn    for.    161 
si)ace    occupied   by,    204 
summer.    206 

for    cows,    261,    279 
weight   of,    204 
Silo,   206-9 

capacity  of,  208 

danger    from    carbon    dioxide    in   filling. 

207 
filling.    206 
proper   size   of.   208 
requisites    of   a   good,   207 
Skim   milk.    146 

for     colts.     232;     calves,     280-5;     pigs, 

364-6;   poultry,  399 
money  value,   for  pigs,   365 
pasteurizing   to   i)revent   disease,    147 
substitutes  for,  in  calf  rearing,  286-7 
Smut,   corn,  201 
Soaking   feed,    46 

for   horses,   226;   pigs,   350 
Soilage,   209-11 

advantages   and  disadvantages   of,   209 
crops  for,   211 
for  cows,  279 
Sorgho,    see    Sorghum,    sweet 
Sorghum,   sweet,    134.    136 

for   cows,    269;    pigs,    364;    poultry,    398 
Sorghum    fodder    or    hay,    163-5 

for  horses,  242;   sheep,  342;  steers,  315 
Sorghum   pasture.    165 
Sorghum   silage.    165 

for  cows.  277 ;  sheep,  345 ;  steers,  320 
Sorghum  soilage.   165 
Sorghum  stover,    165 

for   steers,    315 
Sorghums,    grain,    134-6 

for  cows.   269;   horses,   239:   pigs,   364; 
poultry,    398;    sheep,    339;    steers. 
311 
Sows,  feed  and  care  of.  354  6 

see   Pigs 
Soybeans.   142-3 

for  cows,   271;  horses,   241;   pigs,   368; 
poultry,    400;    sheep,    340;    steers, 
313 
Soybean  cake  or  meal,   143 

for    cows,    272 
Soybean  hay,    190 
Soybean  jjasture    for    pigs,    372 
Soybean  silage,    190 
Spelt,   see  Emmer 
Squashes,    198 

Stallion,  feed  and  care  of,  234 
Starch,    4 

digested  by  ptyalin,   22 
production  of,  from  corn,  120 
Starch   values.   Kellner's,  92 
Steers,   290-321 

(For  the  value  of  the  various  ft  eds 
for    steers,    see    Corn,    Corn    silage, 
etc.) 
age,    influence   of  on  cost  of   gains,    67, 

292 
breed,  value  of  in  beef  making.  296 
calculating  rations  for,  90  2.  93  4 
composition    of.    at    different    ages,    19 
composition    of    increase    during    fatten- 
ing.  68 
cost  of  fattening.   300 
degree    of    finish,    influence    on    cost    of 
gains,    294 


440 


INDEX 


Steers,   continued 

early  maturity  of  beef  breeds,   296 

fattening,   length  of   feeding  period,   294 
methods  of,    304-7 
on  pasture,  304-5 
on    small    amount    of    concen- 
trates,  295 

feed  requirements  of,   292 

feeds   for,    30o-321 

frequency  of   feeding,    299 

gains    on   grass,    304 

gains  on  droppings,  by  hogs,  299 

getting   on   feed,    299 

grain  feeding  on  pasture,   305 

growing,   303 

growth  under  adverse  conditions,  73-5 

hints  on  fattening,  299 

margin  required  in  fattening,   291 

phases    of    beef   production,    290 

jiigs    following,    299 

preparation  of  feed  for,   309 

preparing    for   shipment,    300 

quiet     and     regularity,     importance     of, 
for,    299 

returns  from,  compared  with  other  farm 
animals.    90 

salt  for.   298 

self  feeder  for,   297 

shelter    for.    297 

shrinkage  in  shipping,   300 

summer   vs.   winter    feeding,    304 

water  required  by,  298 

wintering  growing,   303.   306 
Steers  and  pigs,  gains  of,  293 
Stock    foods.    155 
Stomach,  capacity  of,  21 
digestion  in,  22 
Stomachs   of  ruminants,   21,  22 
Stomach  worms  in  sheep,   330 
Stover,   see   Corn   stover 
Straw,    176 

for  cows,  276;  horses,  225;  sheep,  342; 
steers,    304,    315 
Succulent  feeds,  value  of,  60 

for    cows,    276  9;    horses,    245  6;    pigs, 
369-74;   poultry,  4012;  sheep,  343- 
6;   steers,   316  21 
Sucrase,   26 
Sudan  grass,   173 
Sugar  beet  pulp,  see  Beet  pulp 
Sugar  beets,    194 

for  cows,  277;   pigs,  374;  poultry,  401; 
sheep,  343 
Sugar  cane,   174 

Sunflower  seed  and  oil  cake,    143 
Sunflower  seed  for   poultry,   400 
Sweet  clover,   see   Clover,  sweet 
Sweet  potato,    197 
Sweet  potatoes  for  pigs,  374 
Swine,  see  Pigs 


Tankage,    148 

for  horses,  241;  pigs,  367 
Temperature,   body,   of  farm   animals,   50 

see   Heat 
Teosinte,   172 
Therm,    40 
Timothy  hay.   169-70 

early  and  late  cut.  169 

for  cows.  275;  horses,  242;  sheep,  342; 
steers,  308,  313 
Trypsin,   25.   30 

Tuberculosis,     spread     by     feeding     infected 
milk.  147 


Tubers,  see  Roots  and  tubers 
Turkeys,    394 
Turnips,    195 

for  cows,  278;  poultry,  401;  sheep,  343 

Urea,  32 
Urine,  32 

fertilizing   coilstituents   voided   in,    218 

heat  carried  off  by,  41,  42 

Variety  of  feeds,  importance  of,  89 

Veal,   feeding  for,   303 

Velvet   bean,    192 

Velvet  bean  pasture  for  pigs,  373 

Ventilation,   see  Air 

Vetch,    hairy   and   common,    191 

Villi,    29,    30 


Waste  of  body,  disposal  of.  32 
Water  requirements  of  animals,  58;  calves, 
285;  cows,  262;  horses.  226;  pigs. 
350;  poultry.  381;  sheep,  325; 
steers,  298 
Water,  evaporation  of,  carries  heat  from 
body,    51 

in  feeds,  how  determined,   12 

in   plants,    5 

warming  for  cows,   262 

warming  for  farm  animals,  58 
Wet  beet  pulp,  see  Beet  pulp,  wet 
Wet  brewers'    grains,    see    Brewers'    grains, 

wet 
Wethers,   see  Sheep  and  Lambs 
Wheat.    123 

by-products   of.    124  6 

for  cows.  269;  horses.  239;  pigs,  363; 
poultry.  396;  sheep,  339;  steers, 
310 

see  Cereals 
Wheat   bran.    124 

for  calves,  283;  cows,  269;  horses,  239; 
pigs,     367;     poultry,     400;     sheep, 
340;   steers,   313 
Wheat   feed,    126 

for  cows,  270 
Wheat    hay    and    pasture,    172 
Wheat   middlings,    125 

for  cows,   270;   horses,   240;   pigs,   367; 
poultry,    400 
Wheat   screenings,    126 

for  poultry.   397;   sheep.    339 
Wheat  shorts,    see   Wheat   middlings 
Wheat  straw.   176 
Whey.    147 

for  calves,  286;  pigs,  366;  poultry.  399 
Whole   milk,   see   Milk,   cow's 
Winter   lambs,    333 
Wood   ashes   for   farm   animals,    57 
Wool,    composition   of,    82 
Wool  production,    82 
Work,    77-9,    221-5 

factors    influencing   efficiency  of,    79 

heat   i)roduced   thru,    77 

internal,   produces  heat,  42,   51 

measurement  of,    221 

nutritive   requirements    for,    77,    222-4 

of  the  horse,  221  5 

production   of,    77 

relation   of  speed   to,   224 

value   of   feeds   for,   222 

see  Energy  and  Horses 

Yolk  in  wool,   82 


APR  82 

N.  MANCHESTER, 


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